Tuberculosis
Communicable disease: Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is a widespread, lethal, and infectious/transmittable disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This bacterial infection usually begins in the form of innumerable strains of mycobacteria. In the past, tuberculosis was also termed as Phthisis or Phthisis pulmonalis. Its short form is known worldwide to be TB, or MTB. Stereotypically, tuberculosis is a lung infection that attacks the lungs; however, it can as well affect the other parts of the body. It can spread through the bloodstream and the lymph nodes to any other part of the human body. TB spreads through the air when affected individuals who have the infection in an active stage sneeze, coughs, or transmits any other respiratory fluid through the air to a non-infected person (Al Jahdali, Menzies & Al Otaibi, 2011). When individuals with active pulmonary TB sing, sneezes, spit, or cough; they emit infectious aerosol droplets, which are about 0.5 to 5…...

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References

Al Jahdali, H.,Menzies, D. & Al Otaibi, B. (2011).Recent developments in the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection.The Indian Journal of Medical Research.133(3), 257 -- 266.

Gerald, J.M., Wang, L. & Elwood, R.K. (2008). Tuberculosis: Control of the disease among aboriginal people in Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal.162(3), 351 -- 355.

Tuberculosis in Newham Borough of London
The Urban Health Profile

It is true that as long as there have been human beings on planet earth there has been a certain amount of struggle against disease and creatures that carry disease along with bacteria and viruses. These are the types of struggles and successes which have determined whether or not civilizations would triumph or be defeated, and these are the struggles which will no doubt be a part of the human experience for years to come. Just as human beings feel like they have some sort of leverage and superiority over illness a disease such as over strains of bacteria through antibiotics, strains of bacteria eventually became resistant to antibiotics and ended up conquering this form of treatment: "A relationship based on interdependency between humans and micro-organisms exists with one achieving dominance over the other throughout history" (Choudhury & Mayo, 2003).

This paper looks…...

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References

Aston-Mansfield. (n.d.). health-factsheet.docx - Aston-Mansfield. Newham.

Beckhurst, C., Evans, S., MacFarlane, A., & Packe, G. (2000). Factors influencing the distribution of tuberculosis cases in an inner London borough. Commun Dis Public Health., 28-31.

CDC.gov. (2013). Learn the Signs and Symptoms of TB Disease. Retrieved from CDC.gov:  http://www.cdc.gov/features/tbsymptoms/ 

Choudhury, S., & P.A., M. (2003). Challenging TB in Newham - A New Approach. Retrieved from warwick.ac.uk:  http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/healthatwarwick/research/devgroups/healthyhousing/healthhousing_papers/dickpaper.pdf

Others are more reckless and assume that they simply will not get sick. No matter who they are or where they come from, though, anyone can contract T if they get around someone who is infected, so people must put social, cultural, and other opinions aside in order to protect themselves and others around them from potentially deadly diseases like T (Lawlor, 2007).
Conclusion

It is very easy to see that T is serious and that it is not something that should be taken lightly by health care workers and by others who may have reason to come into contact with T-infected individuals. Approximately fifty percent of people who develop an active T infection and are not treated properly die from it. Anyone who works in a health care setting is at an increased risk simply because he or she is exposed to much more than other people are. Without a…...

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Bibliography

Blumberg HM, Leonard MK, Jasmer RM (2005). Update on the treatment of tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection. JAMA 293 (22): 2776-84.

Dormandy, Thomas (2000). The White Death. New York: New York University Press.

Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society (2000). Control and prevention of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: Code of practice 2000. Thorax 55 (11): 887-901.

Kidder, Tracy (2004). Mountains beyond mountains: A nonfiction account of treating TB in Haiti, Peru, Russia, and elsewhere. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks.

5 per 100,000 in 1986. In 1994, the number of TB cases among residents of correctional facilities for 59 reporting areas had reached 24,361 (4.6% of the total reporting correctional population) (Braithwaite et al.). The incidence rate was 139.3 per 100,000 by 1993 and the unadjusted case rates for prison populations in many areas are significantly higher than the rates for the general population (Braithwaite et al.). According to these authors, "The 1993 TB case rate of 139.3 per 100,000 in the New York state correctional system was more than six times the case rate of 21.7 per 100,000 for the general population of New York state. Similarly, in New Jersey the incidence of TB among state inmates in 1992 was 91.3 per 100,000, compared with 12.6 per 100,000 for the state's general population in the same year" (Braithwaite et al., p. 109). At one California state prison, the annual…...

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References

An overview of NYC DOC facilities. (2008). City of New York Department of Correction. Retrieved January 19, 2008 at http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/html/about/facilities_overview.shtml.

Braithwaite, R.L., Braithwaite, K., & Poulson, R. (1998, April). HIV and TB in prison. Corrections Today, 60(2), 108-109.

Coyle, a., Campbell, a., & Neufeld, R. (2003). Capitalist punishment: Prison privatization & human rights. Atlanta: Clarity Press.

Dolin, G. (2002). A healer or an executioner? The proper role of a psychiatrist in a criminal justice system. Journal of Law and Health, 17(2), 169.

From the lung apices to the hemi-diaphragms, 1.5-mm thick sections were taken at 10-mm intervals. The images were prospectively reconstructed with the use of a high-resolution bone algorithm in diagnosing the lung lesions. The HRCT results were then compared with the results of clinical and para-clinical work-up on the patients. The analysis and comparison of rank values were performed using the chi-square P-values less than 0.05, and the sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value were likewise computed.
Results showed that 61 of the patients were negative for sputum smear and culture, 9 were positive for both, 5 negative for sputum smear and culture positive and 27 diagnosed according to AL and TL results (Martin and Lazarus 2000, Karam). All of the patients had x-ray or chest radiographs suggesting active PT through infiltration or cavitation in the upper lobes. HRCT findings concluded that 76 of the patients or 74.5% had…...

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Bibliography

Bureau of Tuberculosis Control. Identifying and Treating "Old Tuberculosis." TB Fact Sheet 3c. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, December 28, 2004. http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/doh/html/tb/tb3c.html

Harisinghani, Mukesh. Tuberculosis from Head to Toe. Radiological Society of North America, 2000.  http://radiographics.rsnajnls.org/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/449 

Karam, bakhashayesh, et al. Role of HRCT in Diagnosing Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis. National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Academy of Medical Sciences of Iran. Iran: Maseeh Daneshvary Hospital. http://www.ams.ae.ir/AIM/0031/karam0031.html

Kirchner, Jeffrey T. Detection of Tuberculosis Despite Normal Chest Findings. American Family Physicians, July 1999.  http://www.aafp.org/afp/990700ap/tips.html#Detection

Tuberculosis, commonly abbreviated as TB and known throughout historical literature as consumption, is an infection caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria. (Psy Guy, 2005) Pulmonary TB is the most common type of infection, which affects the lungs. There are several other manifestations of the infection including an infection of the central nervous system, known as meningitis, an infection of the circulatory system, known as miliary TB, as well as infections of the lymphatic system, the genitourinary system, the bones, and the joints. World-wide, tuberculosis infects two billion people. With one-third of all people affected, tuberculosis is easily the most common major infectious disease today. Most of the infections are asymptomatic latent TB infections, which have a ten percent chance of progressing to an active TB disease. If tuberculosis progresses to this point, there is a fifty percent chance of death if no treatment is received. Two million people die from…...

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"The health and socioeconomic status of African-Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans and low-income Americans continues to fall in many key indicators as reported recently by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The infant mortality rate dramatizes the significant health care gap between white Americans and other segments of our population. In 1992 the infant mortality rate among African-Americans was 2.3 times that of whites, with the Native American and Hispanic populations also experiencing significantly higher rates than those of whites. Such factors as these can only compound our existing racial and ethnic tensions." (Norris & Lampe, 1994)

These trends take a whole community to overcome, and Oklahoma City is actually among the communities that is showing sincere effort to built a healthier city from the ground up. The "Central Oklahoma 2020" project, based in Oklahoma City and reaching out to more than thirty cities, is a framework to improve the quality of life for all individuals. (Norris & Lampe, 1994) Educators, elected officials, clergy, community activists, corporate leaders, and citizens of all ages spearheaded this project. Assessing past community initiatives, developing new community strategies, identifying priority areas, and setting initiatives are among the tasks of this group. Neighborhood-based support systems and providing quality child-care are among the goals of this project, and all of the efforts may potentially increase the overall availability of necessary services that lead to a healthy community.

Unfortunately, the health of the communities in question

Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease primarily affecting the respiratory system. Symptoms include coughing, phlegm, fever, and weight loss. The disease can be fatal if left untreated, and is treatable with medications including antibiotics. Tuberculosis is more common in developing countries, but can affect anyone with a lowered immune system. Preventing the spread of tuberculosis involves public health campaigns to raise awareness.
The bacterium that causes tuberculosis is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Although it most commonly infects the lungs, Mycobacterium tuberculosis can also affect other organs in the body. Exposure to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria does not necessarily lead to manifestations of the illness, because the bacteria can live inside the body and remain inactive. Moreover, when the bacteria remain inactive or latent, the disease will not be contagious ("Understanding Tuberculosis: The Basics," 2015). This is why only a small number of persons who are exposed to the tuberculosis bacteria will develop…...

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References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). Treatment. Retrieved online:  http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/treatment/default.htm 

"Risk Factors," (2015). MayoClinic. Retrieved online:  http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/basics/risk-factors/con-20021761 

Seddon, J.A. (2012). Pediatric use of second-line anti-tuberculosis agents. Tuberculosis 92(1): 9-17.

Udwadia, Z.F., et al. (2011). Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis in India. Clinical Infectious Diseases 54(4): 579-581.

Tuberculosis
The Emergence and Re-emergence of Tuberculosis: Prevalence of Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in the 21st Century

In the 2003 lung disease statistics, tuberculosis is considered the "foremost cause of death from a single infectious disease," wherein T is prevalent among developing countries, causing 99% of deaths (ALA, 2004). Indeed, American Lung Association (2004) considers tuberculosis as the an "ancient scourge," gaining prevalence in the 19th century and resurging once again in the 21st century, despite medical technologies developed to curb the said airborne disease. Tuberculosis is an airborne disease that is characterized chronic or acute bacterial infection that attacks the lungs, and can also affect other parts and vital organs of the body, such as the bones, skin, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, and the neck (affecting the lymph nodes) (Reichman, 2002:14). It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Symptoms of T are coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, fever, chills, and fatigue (Microsoft Encarta 2002).

The…...

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Bibliography

Frieden, T. et. al. (1993). The Emergence of Drug-Resistant in New York City. The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 328, No. 8. Available at:   minscore=5000& qbe=nejm%3B328%2F16%2F1137& searchid=1077202754885_5475& FIRSTINDEX=0& minscore=5000& journalcode=nejm.http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/328/8/521?journalcode=nejm& ;

Hung, R. et. al. (2002). Risk Factors of Tuberculosis Conversion in a State Prison. McGill Journal of Medicine, Vol. 7, No. 1. Available at: http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v07n01/orig_articles/orig_articles.htm

Lung Disease Data 2003. American Lung Association. Available at:  http://www.lungusa.org/data/s2s03/ldd03.pdf .

Parker, J. (2002). The 2002 Official Patient's Sourcebook on Tuberculosis. CA: Icon Group International, Inc.

Tuberculosis and AIDS Quarantines -- Ineffective Strategies of Disease Control
Imagine this. You sit next to someone in a crowded subway car, or come into contact with someone on a daily basis because they live in the same apartment complex. That person coughs frequently, and sometimes spits up blood. Later you find out that person had a contagious disease -- tuberculosis. Then you start to cough. You go to your doctor and find out that same person passed that same contagious illness onto you, because the ailment can be passes through casual contact, simply by breathing in the bacteria through the air. According to the Center for Disease Control, "TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The bacteria are put into the air when a person with active TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs or sneezes. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become…...

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Works Cited

CDC. (2005) "Questions and Answers about TB: How is Tuberculosis Spread?" Article Retrieved 30 Apr 2005 at  http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/faqs/qa_introduction.htm#Intro1 

CDC. (2005) "Questions and Answers about TB: What is TB?" Article Retrieved 30 Apr 2005 at  http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/faqs/qa_introduction.htm#Intro3

Tuberculosis [...] tuberculosis as an emerging infectious disease. Tuberculosis is not a new disease, and the fact that it still exists in the world illustrates the tenacity of this infectious disease and the difficulties in continually treating and eliminating these types of diseases. Tuberculosis continues to kill millions of people each year and scientists are attempting to find new cures for the disease as it spirals out of control into one of the worst health menaces facing our world today.
History of Tuberculosis

The scientist obert Koch first discovered the disease tuberculosis (TB) in humans in 1882. There is also a bovine form of the disease that is effectively controlled in areas that thoroughly pasteurize milk and practice more efficient health care in cattle. Birds can also carry a type of tuberculosis that can affect humans. Before its discovery, tuberculosis was known by a variety of names, including the most popular,…...

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References

Editors. "The Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis." World Health Organization. 2003. 19 March 2004.  http://www.who.int/gtb/publications/stb/cds_stb_2003_23/globalplan_en.pdf 

Tuberculosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2000.

Swartz, Morton N. "Eliminating Tuberculosis: Opportunity Knocks Twice." Issues in Science and Technology Fall 2000: 39.

Tuberculosis: An Airborne Disease." UN Chronicle Summer 1998: 73.

Tuberculosis’ policies, finance, global prevention, and treatment initiatives related to Tuberculosis by their applicable ethics principles. Considerable headway has been achieved in the battle against tuberculosis in the 21st century – a total of forty-nine million patients’ lives have been saved. But the disease continues to pose a major health threat, especially to highly vulnerable population groups worldwide (Organization, W 2009). Tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis, care and treatment gives rise to both ethical and technical problems which must be appropriately dealt with. For example, the latest involuntary quarantine of tuberculosis-diagnosed individuals across the globe raises the issue of balancing public health protection with individual freedoms and rights.
The End Tuberculosis Strategy of the WHO (World Health Organization) and the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations aimed at eliminating this endemic by the year 2030 demand due focus on ethics, equity, and human rights. To this end, a WHO-published tuberculosis ethics code “Ethics…...

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References

Donnell, O. (2008). Analyzing health equity using household survey data : a guide to techniques and their implementation. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

Major, B., Dovidio, J. & Link, B. (2018). The Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and health. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Organization, W. (2009). Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Scope and Depth of the Problem One of the top ten causes of death worldwide, tuberculosis kills almost two million people per year (World Health Organization, 2018). Viewed another way, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2018) claims that one quarter of the world’s population is currently infected with tuberculosis. The number of cases in the United States has declined slowly, and is currently less than 10,000 (CDC, 2017a). All fifty states reported at least one case of tuberculosis in 2016 (CDC, 2017b). Worldwide, though, there are about 10 million new cases each year as of 2016, the majority of which occur in just seven countries: India, Indonesia, China, Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria, and South Africa. Tuberculosis is preventable when diagnostic and treatment interventions are available. The infection can also remain latent and non-contagious. However, there are some tuberculosis strains that have been becoming drug-resistant, impeding the effort to eliminate…...

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References

CDC (2018). Data and statistics.

CDC (2017a). TB Incidence in the United States, 1953-2016. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/tbcases.htm

CDC (2017b). Trends in tuberculosis. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm

“TB Statistics United States – National, drug resistance & state,” (n.d.). TB Facts. https://www.tbfacts.org/tb-statistics-united-states/

“Tuberculosis (TB) Fast Facts,” (2018). CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/02/health/tuberculosis-tb-fast-facts/index.html

World Health Organization (2018). Tuberculosis: key facts. http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm

Tuberculosis vaccine has been around for decades. However, tuberculosis is still one of the most significant reasons for death globally. Furthermore amidst the still developing nations, tuberculosis has not decreased, with cases on the rise annually. Measures to prevent tuberculosis must be taken. Recent studies and articles relaying information on better medications, and increased efforts towards prevention has led to potential decline in tuberculosis cases. Within the next decade, hopes are for Africa, where tuberculosis diagnosis remains high, to also see a decline. Notwithstanding these developments, full scale-up of tuberculosis and HV cooperative undertakings remains perplexing and evolving drug-resistant tuberculosis is slowly becoming a key threat.
Morbidity and Mortality Statistics

This article review will focus on existing information on tuberculosis cases to better understand the spread of tuberculosis globally. t will contain articles that examine the failure of national programs to address treatment and diagnosis of tuberculosis which adds to the…...

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In order for the nations with the highest cases to meet the budgetary concerns, they must integrate the groundwork for determined budgets for the deterrence and control of MDR tuberculosis. "These plans must be consistent with policies on health care financing, including social-protection schemes (the delivery of commodities to reduce the social vulnerability of poor populations), and with broader planning and financing frameworks"(Nathanson et al., 2010, pp. 1050-1058).The best part about this article concerns how to establish the budget needed for these protocols. It urges the middle-income countries amongst the 27 nations to assemble their national assets. With proper gathering of resources, these nations can then afford an effective means of combating MDR TB.

Effective vaccines for TB are also in development. In an article by Checkley and Mcshane, they discuss how new vaccines are being manufactured through sustained global investment. "An effective tuberculosis (TB) vaccine could have a significant impact on the current TB pandemic. The past decade has seen sustained global investment into reaching this goal; currently there are several promising vaccines in clinical trials" (Checkley & Mcshane, 2011, p. 601).Existing methods comprise of the expansion of an enriched bacilli Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine to be administered at birth as well as a booster vaccine to be given after the BCG vaccine. The combination of the vaccine and booster shots given directly after birth will prevent many children from facing risk of developing TB from late administration of vaccine. The authors help the reader better understand present vaccination strategies and the weaknesses inherent in the traditional methods by describing current strategies and looking over the primary concerns in new TB vaccine development. Although they present new findings in relation to vaccination approaches they do not truly sell the idea of new vaccines or their efficacy. "The main challenge in early trials is the lack of a defined correlate of vaccine-induced immune protection. Following this, large efficacy trials are undertaken, which face the daunting challenges of cost, logistics and trial site capacity" (Checkley & Mcshane, 2011, p. 601).

In an article by Kawkridge & Mahomed, the authors explore some of the problems surrounding the progress of new vaccines against TB and provide detailed information on the principal contenders. As previously discussed in the Checkley & Mcshane article, a redone BCG vaccine is supposed to be a new and effective means of combating TB. This article highlights evidence suggesting just how ineffective the normal BCG vaccine is. "Tuberculosis in infants and young children remains an all too common cause of morbidity and mortality

Tuberculosis: Causes, Effects, Symptoms and Prevention Measures
Bacterial infections range from mild skin infections to more complicated diseases such as tuberculosis and bubonic plague. Advanced antibiotics, vaccines, and improved sanitation have over the years caused significant reductions in the mortality rates resulting from bacterial infections. Cases of resurgence have, however, been reported in some instances as a result of the evolution of strains that are resistant to antibiotics. Tuberculosis comes about when disease-causing bacteria induce sensitivity into the host's antigenic system (Clark 181). This text examines the costs imposed by TB on an individual and the economy and how the incidence of TB can be controlled. It hypothesizes that the control of TB is not a one-nation affair; in order to effectively combat TB within its borders, a nation must work hand in hand with other nations.

Tuberculosis (TB)

TB was once thought to be headed for extinction. Recent statistics, however, depict that…...

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Works Cited

CDC. "Tuberculosis." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012. Web. 25 March 2014  http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/default.htm 

Clark, William. The New Healers: the Promises and Problems of Molecular Medicine in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Oxford University, 1997. Print.

Kaye, Katherine, and Frieden Thomas. "Tuberculosis Control: the Relevance of Classic Principles in an Era of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Multidrug Resistance." Epidemiological Reviews 18.1 (1996): 52-63. Print.

Queensland Health. "Topic: Tuberculosis TB." Queensland Government, 2013. Web. 25 March 2014 http://access.health.qld.gov.au/hid/LungandAirwayHealth/InfectionsandParasites/tuberculosisTb_fs.asp

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a potentially deadly bacterium that can come into contact with humans and create an unpleasant scenario. Because of the potential danger that this bacterium holds, numerous diagnostic tests exist that will help to accurately identify this particular strand. The first test that is done on an unidentified bacterium is the Gram Stain. This stain allows for the determination of whether the bacterium that is being tested is either gram-positive or gram-negative (Murray and Baron, 544). This is important as almost all of the bacteria in the world fall into these two categories.
The difference between gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria is in the composition of the bacterial wall. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer that is made up of polysaccharides; however, gram-negative bacteria have a thinner peptidoglycan layer, but it has an extra lipid layer surrounding the outside of its cell wall (Brooks et al., 232). This difference…...

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References:

Brooks, George F., Ernest Jawetz, Joseph L. Melnick, and Edward A. Adelberg. Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's Medical Microbiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2013. Print.

Murray, Patrick R., and Ellen Jo. Baron. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: ASM, 2007. Print.

Schaechter, Moselio, N. Cary. Engleberg, Victor J. DiRita, and Terence Dermody.Schaechter's Mechanisms of Microbial Disease. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013. Print.

I. Introduction
A. Brief explanation of infectious diseases
B. Brief explanation of lifestyle diseases

II. Infectious Diseases
A. Definition and characteristics
1. Caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi
2. Transmitted through direct contact, contaminated food or water, or vectors

B. Common examples
1. Influenza
2. Tuberculosis
3. Malaria

C. Prevention and control
1. Vaccinations
2. Good hygiene practices
3. Public health measures

III. Lifestyle Diseases
A. Definition and characteristics
1. Chronic diseases caused by unhealthy lifestyle choices
2. Develop over time due to factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking

B. Common examples
1. Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease, stroke)
2. Type 2 diabetes
3. Obesity

C. Prevention and management
1. Healthy diet and nutrition
2. Regular physical activity
3. Smoking....

Outline: Infectious and Lifestyle Diseases

I. Introduction
- Hook: Start with a captivating statistic or narrative that highlights the global burden of infectious and lifestyle diseases.
- Thesis statement: State the central argument that infectious and lifestyle diseases pose significant risks to human health, and that these risks are influenced by various lifestyle factors.

II. Infectious Diseases
- Definition of infectious diseases and their modes of transmission.
- Examples of common infectious diseases (e.g., influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis) and their associated symptoms and severity.
- Factors contributing to the spread of infectious diseases, including poverty, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare.
- The role of public health....

Internal migration in Papua New Guinea has had a significant impact on the social and economic landscape of the country. Some of the key ways in which internal migration has influenced Papua New Guinea include:

1. Urbanization: Internal migration has led to a significant increase in urbanization in Papua New Guinea, with more people moving from rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities. This has led to the rapid growth of urban centers such as Port Moresby and Lae, which have become hubs of economic activity in the country.

2. Pressure on infrastructure and services: The influx of migrants....

Rifampicin is a key component of tuberculosis (TB) treatment, as it is one of the first-line antibiotics used in the treatment of the disease. Its mechanism of action involves inhibiting the bacterial enzyme RNA polymerase, which is essential for the synthesis of bacterial RNA. This, in turn, leads to the inhibition of protein synthesis in the bacteria, ultimately leading to their death.
Several studies have highlighted the effectiveness of rifampicin in the treatment of TB. A study by Lamarre et al. (2017) found that rifampicin, when used in combination with other antibiotics, led to a significant reduction in the bacterial burden....