Strain Theory
There are many theories that seek to explain what causes crime to occur and what motivates individuals to engage in criminal or deviant behavior. One such theory is strain theory, which contends, "crime and criminal behavior is…essentially social phenomenon" (Arrigo, 2006, p. 57). As such, strain theory must look at society as a whole in order to determine what causes deviant behavior; however, just as strain theory seeks to explain the causes of crime, there are also limitations that are imposed upon the theory.

"Strain theory seeks to integrate the cultural context in which crime occurs…with the social mechanisms that teach one how to act criminally" (Arrigo, 2006, p. 56). obert Merton helped to define the factors that lead to strain. Merton (1968) believes that at the center of social organizations are strains, tensions, and contradictions that are "generated by society itself; they do not reside within the individual" (White…...

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References

Arrigo, B. (2006). Criminal Behavior: A Systems Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Merton, R. (1938, October). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review. 3(5),

pp. 672-682.

Consumer FraudIntroductionThe crime problem selected for this essay is consumer fraud, a form of deceit perpetrated against consumers involving deceptive business practices. Consumer fraud can include various scams, false advertising, identity theft, and other illicit activities intending to deceive consumers out of their money. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) estimates that in the United States alone, millions of people fall victim to consumer fraud each year, leading to billions of dollars in losses. The impacts of consumer fraud are profound, extending beyond financial losses to include psychological distress and diminished trust in commercial transactions. This essay aims to explore this crime problem from both sociological and psychological perspectives, applying Strain Theory and Routine Activities Theory respectively. These theories will be used to unpack the phenomenon of consumer fraud, offering potential insights into prevention strategies and implications for public policy. The essay will begin by defining consumer fraud, followed by a…...

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References

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-88.

Benson, M. L., & Simpson, S. S. (2009). White-Collar Crime: An Opportunity Perspective. Routledge.

Button, M., Lewis, C., & Tapley, J. (2014). Not a victimless crime: The impact of fraud on individual victims and their families. Security Journal, 27(1), 36-54.

Strain Theory
The subject of strain theory is a very hot topic in the public, psychology and otherwise scholarly spheres. Indeed, academic search engines are teeming with reports, studies and summaries of strain theory in all of its forms, functions and offshoots. This report shall cover five scholarly-reviewed works pertaining to strain theory and/or its variants, in its entirety or in part. The true genesis of what leads some people to become criminals, what leads some people to become victims and how some people transcend both through their lives is the subject of rigorous study. While the true and complete answer to what causes some people to offend may never be known, some answers and trends are already known and some of those will be summarized in this report.

Analysis

One "strain" of strain theory is the perspective of looking at direct and vicarious violent victimization. This paradigm can be applied to juvenile…...

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References

Botchkovar, E., Tittle, C., & Antonaccio, O. (2013). Strain, Coping, and Socioeconomic

Status: Coping Histories and Present Choices. Journal Of Quantitative

Criminology, 29(2), 217-250. doi:10.1007/s10940-012-9177-7

Lin, W., Cochran, J.K., & Mieczkowski, T. (2011). Direct and Vicarious Violent

Strain theory states that certain societies may pressure individuals to commit a crime. Strain may be either structural, namely where the individual feels that his or her needs are not met and turns to crime, therefore, as way of meeting these needs. In this case, processes at the societal level filter adown and effect the individual's perception regarding how he or she perceives her need. For instance, the particular society may be too constricting and disallow the individual from meeting his needs. The individual then turns to crime as outlet to meet it.
The strain may be also individual where society's goals become so important to the individual that he or she looks for ways to achieve and meet them, and unable to accomplish them in the normal way, reverts to crime in order to do so. The end of achieving these goals, in other words, becomes more important than the…...

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References

Jensen, G. (2003). Social disorganization theory. Encyc. Of Criminology. Fitzroy Dearborn Pub.

Pfohl, S.. (1994). Images of deviance and social control. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Sutherland, E.H.. (1974). Criminology (9th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

e. money and tangible acquisitions) but in unconventional, deviant, or criminal ways (Schmalleger, 2009).
The other significant finding of the empirical literature is that racism also relates to Strain Theory in that social ostracism and oppression are noxious stimuli that contribute to the strain experienced by individuals (Agnew, 1992; Broidy, 2001). In that regard members of racial minority communities who are mistreated and subjected to negative messages from the predominant social groups typically identify less with the norms, values, and expectations of the predominant society. Alternatively, they may still seek the same goals promoted by the predominant society but resort to deviant and criminal methods to achieve them, partly as a result of perceived necessity and partly as a manifestation of resentment and hostility over the injustice inherent in racism and in the oppression of racial minority groups (Macionis, 2007).

acism also contributes to Anomie and strain perceived by the individual indirectly…...

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References

Agnew, R. "Foundation for a General Strain Theory." Criminology, Vol. 30, No. 1

(1992): 47-87.

Agnew, R. And Brezina, T. "Relational Problems with Peers, Gender, and Delinquency."

Youth & Society, Vol. 29, No. 1 (1997): 84-111.

General Strain Theory Summary
General strain theory (GST) offers a unique explanation of delinquency and crime, which is in direct contrast to control and learning theories. The differentiation is through the type of social relationship that leads to delinquency, and the motivation for delinquency. By analyzing GST, we can determine the effect or how criminal behavior is developed. GST looks at how a negative relationship will affect and individual and their possibility of developing towards crime. A negative relationship can be defined as any relationship of other people that is not consistent with the individual's beliefs of how they should be treated. In this paper, we have analyzed two articles all focusing on GST. However, the two articles differ in the negative stimuli being researched. Cullen, Unnever, Hartman, Turner, and Agnew (2008) is analyzing the impact of bullying while Watts and McNulty (2013) is analyzing the impact of childhood abuse. Both articles…...

Theories of DelinquencyIntroductionTwo theoretical frameworks through which juvenile delinquency can be examined are Strain Theory and Social Learning Theory. For instance, Strain Theory suggests that societal pressures and the inability to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means lead to delinquency. In contrast, Social Learning Theory posits that delinquent behavior is learned through social interactions and observation of others. This paper explores the similarities and differences of these theories and discusses their application to the problem of juvenile delinquency.Strain TheoryStrain Theory was first developed by sociologist Robert Merton in the 1930s. It is centered on the concept of anomie, or a state of normlessness in which social norms and the established social structure both fail in terms of providing guidance and constraints on behavior (Merton, 1938). Merton believed that when individuals are unable to achieve desirable social goals, such as wealth and success, through hard work and education, they lash…...

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References

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-88.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall.

Byongook, M., & Morash, M. (2004). Adaptation of theory for alternative cultural contexts: Agnew\\\\\\'s general strain theory in South Korea. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 28(2), 77-104.

The Saints and the Roughnecks As Chambliss pointed out in his study of the “Saints and Roughnecks,” the label of deviance can become a self-fulfilling prophesy. This accords with what Lamert called the issue of primary and secondary deviance, with primary deviance being largely accepted and unpunished while secondary deviance leads more to punishment and the feeling of being an outcast (Liberman, Kirk and Kim). It also aligns with the concept of social strain theory, in which an individual is pushed to deviance by society because of inherent hypocrisy in society that angers the deviant and makes the deviant want to act out more in response (Agnew). Thirdly, it aligns with the idea of social control theory, which states that deviants act because they want to break from social controls and gain some power for themselves (Schreck and Hirschi). All three theories could be used to explain the situation of the…...

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Works Cited

Agnew, R. Strain Theory. In V. Parrillo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social problems. (pp. 904-906). Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2009.

Lemert, Edwin M. \\\\"Primary and secondary deviation.\\\\" DR Cressey y (1969).

Liberman, Akiva M., David S. Kirk, and Kideuk Kim. \\\\"Labeling effects of first juvenile arrests: Secondary deviance and secondary sanctioning.\\\\" Criminology 52.3 (2014): 345-370.

Schreck, C. and T. Hirschi. Social Control Theory. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2009.

Crime and Its Impact on Youth
Crime impacts children differently than it does adults. This paper examines the differences and the reasons children are affected uniquely by crime. It looks in particularly at the multiple theories that can be used to explain these impacts, such as Strain Theory and Social Control Theory. It also identifies the unique challenges that children and adults face as they struggle to cope both with the environments in which they live and the criminal justice systems that confront them. The paper concludes that children are uniquely impacted by crime because they are still in their developmental stage, wherein their psychology and physicality are still highly susceptible to external influences.

Introduction

Children suffer from the effects of crime in different ways from adults. This is primarily due to the fact that children are still developing, both cognitively and physically, whereas adults are already developed. Crime thus impacts the development…...

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References

Agnew, R. (2008). Strain Theory. In V. Parrillo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social problems.

(pp. 904-906). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.

Barrett, D., Ju, S., Katsiyannis, A., Zhang, D. (2015). Females in the juvenile justice system: influences on delinquency and recidivism. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24: 427-433.

Benns, W. (2015). American Slavery, Reinvented. The Atlantic. Retrieved from  http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/09/prison-labor-in-america/406177/

Strain and Anomie Theories
In this text, I highlight the causes of strain and anomie. Further, in addition to describing the crime types addressed by this theoretical approach, I will also explain how the upper and middle class crimes apply to these theories.

Anomie or strain theories according to Einstadter and Henry (2006) "locate the cause of crime in the organization of the whole society, that is in its social structure and culture." Thus the insistence here is on what pressures individuals to commit crime. One of the causes of strain identified by Siegel (2012) is the lack of coping mechanisms that can be regarded adequate. In this case, citizens may be unable to cope with the social structures pressuring them to commit crime. As Siegel (2012) further points out, the major premise when it comes to anomie theory is that people may be forced to seek alternatives of attaining the various…...

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References

Einstadter, W.J. & Henry, S. (2006). Criminology Theory: An Analysis of Its Underlying Assumptions (2nd ed.). Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.

Siegel, L.J. (2012). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Vito, G. & Maahs, J. (2011). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy (3rd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

By the 1980s, theories had begun to swing the other way again, with doubts being cast on the relevance of aggregate social strain theories (Bernard 1987). Even social strain theorists were finding new and more individualistic and specific features within the theory (Agnew 1985).
In the past two decades, social strain theory has continued to be attacked by some as an antiquated and invalidated method for explaining subversive and criminal behavior, with some theorists stating outright that the empirical evidence supports alternative explanations far better than it supports traditional social strain theories (Burton et al. 1994). Other researchers have found evidence that in their view directly refutes certain aspects of social strain theory while seeming to support certain other conclusions and hypotheses that are a part of the overall explanation for criminality (De Clercq & Dakhil 2009). Ultimately, all of the problems and discrepancies that have been found with social…...

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References

Agnew, R. (1985). A revised strain theory of delinquency. Social forces 64(1): 151-67.

Bernard, T. (1987). Testing social strain theories. Journal of research in crime and delinquency 24(4): 262-80.

Burton, V., Cullen, F., Evans, T. & Dunaway, R. (1994). Reconsidering strain theory: Operationalization, rival theories, and adult criminality. Journal of quantitative criminology 10(3): 213039.

De Clercq, D. & Dakhil, M. (2009). Personal strain and ethical standards of the self-employed. Journal of business venturing 24(5): 477-90.

371). In addition, the cultural strain can result to conflicts like for instance when the fundamentalists denies the proposition to abandon their traditions (Allan, 2005, p. 367), where the strain as an agitation of a cultural anticipation in a system, as it tries to disturb the equilibrium of the system.
Considering a society characterized by different individuals that have varied backgrounds and understanding, shaped by different surroundings, and having understanding that there exists no perfect society, this society from the continuing challenges is experiencing cultural strain, as there exists differences in opinions from the structural constituents of the system thus an abrupt need for social modification. This is from the mechanical solidarity resulting from valued traditional practices as well as values and beliefs, and on the other part organic solidarity where there are differences on individual demands concerning their tasks. From a Parson's approach, this rapid need for change then…...

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References

Allan, K. (2005). Explorations in classical theory: Seeing the social world. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Pine Forge Press.

Hartnell. (n.d.). Sociological theories: the anomie strain theory, society is underachiever.

Hartlnell.edu. Retrieved from www.hartnell.edu/faculty/lbertomen/.../Sociological%20TheoriesI.ppt

Criminal Justice Theory and the Los Angeles County Probation Department
Criminal and antisocial behaviors have been studied in the field of criminology for many years. Criminologists are very interested to learn what types of things cause specific criminal and antisocial behaviors. hile criminal behavior and antisocial behavior are not always related, they often have close ties. Criminologists and other researchers are looking to find commonalities between certain genetic makeups and deviant behavior. They believe that many people are genetically predisposed to be violent, and if these people can be located they can be treated.

That does not mean that criminologists are in favor of testing everyone's genetic makeup on the planet to see if any of them show violent tendencies. hat they are interested in doing, however, is studying criminals who already have a history of violent and deviant behavior to see what other traits they have, and what their genetic makeup…...

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Works Cited

Anderson, R.H. (2000, January 13). Unit 5: deviance, conformity and social control. University of Colorado at Denver. Retrieved September 2, 2005, from about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fthunder1.cudenver.edu%2F%2Fsociology%2Fintrosoc%2Ftopics%2FUnitNotes%2Fweek05.htmlhttp://psychology.

Brand, C. Cycad Web Works. (2003, February). Can crime be traced to such often-mooted personality features as extraversion and lack-of-conscientiousness? Are genetic factors involved-in whatever interaction with the environment? And can any therapeutic or preventive steps by recommended? Retrieved August 29, 2005, from http://www.cycad.com/cgi-bin/Brand/quotes/q16.html

Brunet, J.R. (2002, November 15). Discouragement of Crime Through Civil Remedies: An Application of a Reformulated Routine Activities Theory. In Western Criminology Review 4 (1) Retrieved September 5, 2005, from htmlhttp://wcr.sonoma.edu/v4n1/brunet.

Casey, D. Human Genome Project. (1997, June). Introduction. Retrieved September 1, 2005, from   / primer/prim1.htmlhttp://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/publicat 

Social Control Theory of Juvenile Delinquency
Underlying Assumptions

Travis Hirschi's Social Control theory of deviance assumes that deviant behavior is largely a function of the connectedness of the individual to his or her society; more specifically, Hirschi's assumptions are that juvenile delinquency, and criminal deviance more generally, are inversely related to the following elements of connectedness between the individual and the community: involvement, commitment, attachment, and belief (Akers & Sellers, 2004; Huebner & Betts, 2002).

Structure of Theory

Hirschi used the concept of involvement to describe the manner and extent to which the individuals takes part in the so-called "conventional" activities, such as extracurricular school functions and other organized opportunities for socially productive youth recreation available in the community (Macionis, 2008). Hirschi used the concept of commitment, to describe the basic "acceptance" in the most general senses, of fundamental social and behavioral norms, values, and expectations in the individual's community and society. Hirschi referred…...

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References

Akers, R.L., and Sellers, C.S. (2004). Criminological Theories: Introduction,

Evaluation, and Application. California: Roxbury Publishing Company.

Button, D.M. "Social Disadvantage and Family Violence: Neighborhood Effects on Attitudes about Intimate Partner Violence and Corporal Punishment." American

Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 33 (2008):130 -- 147.

Theory
Compare and contrast at least three views on what constitutes a theory. Distinguish the related concepts of theories, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model and concept.

Differentiating between hypothesis and theory

The word hypothesis is a description of various phenomenon occurring. In most cases, it's not a confirm statement. In other cases, it can be well-developed, designed and explained to follow through the workings and mechanisms of certain phenomenon. According to one definition, it states particularly that it's a precursor to a conditional proposition. A hypothesis is an unconfirmed theory. One can develop a hypothesis while the observation is being tested, that could be unconfirmed too. By an observation, one can simply have a window of opportunity to verify a hypothesis. A hypothesis can be detailed and inclusive of details. This permits lucid testing. Apart from that, it is the distinguishing factor from a theory (Harris, 2001).

The word theory is of scientific nature…...

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References

Ardichvili, A., & Gasparishvili, A. (2001). Leadership profiles of managers in post-communist countries: A comparative study. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22(2): 62-75.

Ashkanasy, N.M., Trevor-Roberts, E., & Earnshaw, L. (2002). The Anglo cluster: Legacy of the British Empire. Journal of World Business, 37, 28-39.

Bakacsi, G., Sandor, T., Andra, K., & Viktor, I. (2002). Eastern European cluster: Tradition and transition. Journal of World Business, 37, 69-80.

Bass, B.M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership. (3rd Edition.). New York: Free Press.

1. Shadows of Silence: Racial Disparities in Gun Ownership Reporting

2. The Unspoken Divide: Race and Gun Ownership Disclosure

3. Behind Closed Doors: Racial Influences on Gun Ownership Surveys

4. Survey Bias or Cultural Silence? Racial Dynamics in Gun Ownership Reporting

1. Pathways to Radicalization: Comparing the Social Identity Model and the Cognitive Opening Model

2. From Radicalization to Deradicalization: Analyzing the Role of Psychological Factors

3. The Push and Pull Factors: A Comparative Analysis of Radicalization Models

4. Radicalization Through the Lens of Social Learning Theory vs. Strain Theory

There are several theories of juvenile delinquency that attempt to explain adolescent behavior in different ways. Some of these theories include social learning theory, strain theory, and control theory. Social learning theory suggests that juveniles learn deviant behavior through their interactions with others, such as family members, peers, and the media. This theory posits that individuals are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior if they observe others being rewarded for such behavior. In this way, social learning theory explains adolescent behavior as a result of modeling and reinforcement. Strain theory, on the other hand, argues that juveniles engage in....