How people learn and adapting our instructional materials to reflect this knowledge. Introduction show familiarity with learning/principles. Discuss constructivism and active learning techniques.
Example
Librarianship and teaching go hand in hand. For as long as libraries have existed, librarians have been in a position to teach people how to use libraries and information resources to effectively retrieve information. This process has come to be known by the term information literacy instruction (ILI).Grassian and Kaplowitz (2009) report that the term information literacy was coined by Zurkowski in 1974; he described an information literate individual as anyone who has learned to use a wide range of information sources in order to solve problems at work and in his or her daily life (quoted in Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009, p. 3). Some classic components of ILI include library orientation, library instruction, and bibliographic instruction. In recent decades, with the explosive growth of computing and changes in the ways we use and access information throughout society, the need for ILI in libraries has grown; ILI now encompasses instruction in basic computer skills, online searching, social networking, blogging, and even in the use of digital media hardware (such as e-readers, tablets, smart phones, and MP3 players) and software (such as OverDrive Media Console, iTunes, and Adobe Digital Editions).

Familiarity with learning principles and theories is an important component of providing effective ILI. By knowing the theories behind the practice of teaching, we can improve not only our instructional materials but also our techniques. Many teaching techniques find their basis in the various learning theories, and familiarity with a wide array of theories and techniques allows us, as teachers, to respond to our students unique needs and to each situation appropriately and effectively. Theories of learning have been discussed throughout the centuries, and several theories have emerged from this ongoing debate. These theories are commonly discussed within the frameworks of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2012, March). Grassian and Kaplowitz (2009) separate the various learning theories into three major categories or schools of thought: doing (the behaviorist model), thinking (the cognitive model??"including the constructivist approach), and feeling (the humanist model) (pp. 27-39), asserting that if we look at the theories this way, we not only have a way to organize them, but we can see what each category of theories has to contribute to the instructional endeavor (p. 27).

Behaviorism, the oldest of the theories, falls into the doing school of thought. As a theory of learning, Grassian and Kaplowitz explain, behaviorism [relies] on the links or associations between stimulus and response (p. 28). The individual who is known for linking behaviorist theory and practical classroom applications is B. F. Skinner, whose emphases on teaching to individual differences and allowing learners to progress at their own pacehave had great implications for the study of learning styles (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009, pp. 28-29). Some educational applications of behaviorism include active participation, programmed instruction, modeling, and behavior modification (pp. 29-30).

Cognitivism developed at least in part as a reaction to behaviorism and its theories, which were viewed by early cognitive psychologists as the mechanistic or simplistic view of learning (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009, p. 30). This set of theories falls into the thinking school of thought. Early cognitivists focused on the ways in which people perceive, organize, interact with, and respond to elements in their environment by determining how elements, ideas, concepts, and topics relate to one another (p. 30). One approach which Grassian and Kaplowitz discuss within the cognitive framework is the constructivist approach: To the constructivist change occurs solely as a result of interactions with the environment and can happen at any age or level of development. Knowledge is not viewed as simply passing from teacher to learner; knowledge is actually constructed in the learners mind (2009, p. 32). Some educational applications of cognitivism include Bruners discovery method, expository teaching, and advance organizers (pp. 34-36).

Finally, the humanist model of learning falls within the feeling school of thought. Humanism emphasizes the affective side of learning: The humanist emphasized that we must teach to the whole person and stressed the importance of recognizing that our learners emotional, affective, or feeling states influence their educational successes (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009, p. 36). What motivates people to learn is a key concern of humanist theories. Important contributors to the humanist school of thought include Maslow, Bandura, and Rogers. Some educational applications of humanism include self-directed or self-regulated learning and learner-centered teaching (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009, pp. 37-39).

As librarians charged with providing instruction, familiarity with these various theories and the teaching techniques they are associated with can make us more effective in facilitating learning for each and every student. Students approach learning from diverse backgrounds and viewpoints, and their preferred learning styles, mental models, and critical thinking skills can vary widely as well. In addition, many students experience anxiety and feelings of uncertainty as they approach learning about new subject areas. Therefore, the more flexible we are as instructors in drawing from the various learning theories and teaching techniques at our disposal, the more successful we and our students will be.

write 2 page essay to explain:

What is comprehensive literacy instruction?

How to scaffold children's literacy development?

Comparing and explain the comprehensive literacy instruction with your current one, have you got some insights for improving your teaching instruction?



Background Reading
Tom D. (1994), Teaching method: Best practice for teachers, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://northonline.sccd.ctc.edu/eceprog/bstprac.htm

Saskatoon Public Schools (2004),Balanced Literacy Instruction, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/balancedliteracy/index.html

The TELUS Learning Connection , What is balanced literacy? Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.earlyliterature.ecsd.net/balanced%20literacy.htm

Houghton Mifflin Company (1997), Useful Instructional Strategies for Literature-Based Instruction, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/literacy/lit_ins4.html

GREECE School District, Scaffold students' reading and writing, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/6-12/Reading/Reading%20Strategies/reading%20strategies%20index.htm

Literacy, Information and Technology in Education (LITE) (2000), Exploring Comprehensive Literacy Resources, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.lite.iwarp.com/complit2.html

Imagine your school is offering a $10,000 grant to purchase technology related to literacy instruction, such as e-book readers, iPods, digital storytelling software, etc. Create a proposal that explains how you would use this money to incorporate technology into your grade level literature studies.


In the proposal (minimum of 1,000 words), address the following:

1) Project title.
2) Your grade level and school demographics.
3) A summary of your proposal intent including a budget breakdown.
4) The issue being addressed.
5) An outline of the current literacy program used in your grade level.
6) The technology you would purchase to enhance the curriculum and how it would be used to achieve your results.
7) The advantages and disadvantages of incorporating this technology.
8) The targeted outcomes and results.
9) A sample lesson that address the overall integration of this technology into your literacy program.

Assignment 1: Application?Using Phenomenology
Using your identified phenomena: Does the impact of teacher instructional technology with new literacy instruction improve elementary (K-5) student achievement in reading vocabulary?
Create a qualitative research scenario using the phenomenology approach. Identify the following:
1. Research question
2. Sample
3. Data collection method (interview, survey, observation, etc.)
The phenomenology approach is defined below. Please see rubric attached on page 2 on how points are allocated.
Phenomenological studies have an underlying philosophical assumption that an individual's reality of a phenomenon is a function of the meaning that individuals give to their experience of that phenomenon. In other words, the phenomenological tradition implies that the researcher proceeds with an understanding that an individual's reality of a phenomenon is inseparable from their consciousness of it. It is the meaning of the phenomenon in the consciousness of the individual that the researcher seeks to illuminate.
The initial step in phenomenological research is termed ?epoche.? Epoche essentially means that the researcher is to suspend judgments, and to avoid the usual and customary ways of perceiving things. The challenge for researchers is to set aside their personal viewpoint and to attempt to comprehend the informant?s experience without the subjective ?filters? and prejudgments that accompany most everyday human interactions. Husserl used the term ?natural attitude? to describe the assumptions and taken-for-granted meanings that we utilize to make sense of our everyday lives.
Utilizing the phenomenological perspective, the researcher would go beyond this ?natural attitude? and attempt to achieve a vantage point and eventual understanding of some phenomenon by transcending such assumptions. This is done by ?bracketing? such assumptions and the a priori knowledge about the phenomenon. By bracketing, the researcher figuratively removes the phenomenon from the familiar world in which it occurs. This enables researchers to make more accurate observations during data collection.
Using in-depth interviews and written documents, the phenomenological researcher collects information about the phenomenon. By thorough reading, the researcher attempts to get a sense of the experience and begins to identify significant statements.
Phenomenological studies tend to be highly descriptive and the researcher attempts to derive the "essence" of an experience by utilizing lengthy interviews with individuals who have experienced the phenomenon of interest. The phenomenon is closely inspected for its "essential elements." These are the essential aspects, or the "essence," of the phenomenon that remain constant with occurrences of the phenomenon and are not contingent upon specific circumstances. Throughout this process, the researcher attempts to maintain a position of "horizontality." This means that no one 'meaning theme' is considered more important than any other. Then, by reduction, the researcher attempts to eliminate repetitive or irrelevant statements that do not evidence any connection to the phenomena. From this, the researcher attempts to identify the central themes in the informant's statements. The central themes and their meaning are eventually integrated into a holistic and exhaustive description of the phenomenon.
With origins in philosophy, the phenomenological research perspective has been developed and productively utilized in a variety of social science disciplines. Phenomenological descriptions have contributed to a better understanding of many human experiences. Phenomenological researchers have made a significant contribution to the overall goal of qualitative inquiry, which basically attempts to develop an understanding of how the world is constructed.
All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.

Assignment 1 Grading Criteria Maximum Points
Responded to all parts of the discussion question applying information from lectures, readings, and used vocabulary relevant to the current week's topics. 5

Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate examples and references from texts, Web sites, and other references or personal experience. Followed APA rules for attributing sources. 15
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. 4

Assignment 1: Application?Using Grounded Theory
Identified Phenomena
Does the impact of teacher instructional technology with new literacy instruction to improve elementary (K-5) student achievement in reading vocabulary?
Using the identified phenomena above, create a qualitative research design using the grounded theory approach.
Identify the following:
1. Research question
2. Sample
3. Data collection method (interview, survey, observation, etc.)
All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.
Grounded Theory is explained below.
Grounded theory does not seek to prove or disprove a predetermined hypothesis, which is commonly found in quantitative research. Rather, as information is gathered, theories are developed from the ground up. This inductive approach is unique to qualitative inquiry. By examining the pieces, a picture begins to emerge from the collected data. Researchers then collect and examine additional information, code and analyze it, and gradually identify a working theory.
As with previous qualitative approaches, coding is an important element in data collection and analysis in grounded theory. Three types of coding are used in grounded theory research, open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Open coding is the initial identification of general themes. The next step is axial coding, which includes assigning categories and subcategories to the data. The final step is selective coding where identification of specific core categories is made.
Certain skills and attributes are needed to conduct grounded theory research. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998, p. 7), they are:
1. The ability to step back and critically analyze situations
2. The ability to recognize the tendency toward bias
3. The ability to think abstractly
4. The ability to be flexible and open to helpful criticism
5. Sensitivity to the words and actions of respondents
6. A sense of absorption and devotion to the work process.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Examples of Grounded Theory is listed below.
Grounded theory researchers begin with a question, or series of questions about a particular research scenario. These questions guide the researcher and help to frame the context of the study and the collection of data. The following are examples of grounded theory research questions in education, psychology, and business:
Education:
1. What was the experience of school for young people who left school early?
2. How did the school context impact on their wellbeing?
3. How has their decision to leave school early impacted on their wellbeing? (Lee & Breen, 2007)
Psychology:
[What was] the experience of both patients on MDRT and their health care providers, including their perceptions of what the challenges are, what helps people stay on treatment, and what each person?s role is in the treatment process? (Alfonso, Toulson, Bermbach, Erkine, & Montaner, 2009)
Business:
What are the career experiences of women with sensory and physical disabilities who have achieved vocational success? (what does it look like) (Noonan, Gallor, et al., 2004)
Alfonso, V., Toulson, A., Bermbach, N., Erkine, Y., & Montaner, J. (2009). Psychosocial issues influencing treatment adherence in patients on multidrug rescue therapy: Perspectives from patients and their health care providers. AIDS Patient Care & STDs, 23(2), 119-126.
Lee, T., & Breen, L. (2007). Young people?s perceptions and experiences of leaving high school early: An exploration. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 17, 329-346.
Noonan, B. M., Gallor, S. M., et al. (2004). Challenge and success: A qualitative study of the career development of highly achieving women with physical and sensory disabilities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 68-80.
Please see rubric how points are assigned.
Assignment 1 Grading Criteria Maximum Points
Responded to all parts of the discussion question applying information from lectures, readings, and used vocabulary relevant to the current week's topics. 5

Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate examples and references from texts, or the Argosy University Online Library. Followed APA rules for attributing sources. 15
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. 4

Research supports the use of technology to strengthen literacy. Use the questions to guide your responses.

How do you (or would you) integrate technology with literacy instruction? Share your best idea with your colleagues.
What other information or tools do you need to successfully integrate technology and literacy instruction? Ask your colleagues for input.

We will pay a lot more for this order! Contact [email protected]

Sources needed for this order have been uploaded.
(Attached is a copy of the outline I sent in the order form box and a PDF file for a resource that might be helpful in completing this paper (Literacy in Secondary Education: Georgia. Paper ID: 71059)

This will be an article describing the current state of secondary literacy (grades 9-12)in Georgia and proposing where we should be heading at this time. I have prepared an outline with topics, questions, and suggestions and a list of possible sources (more can be added).
Quotations should be embedded into sentences and phrases should be used more often than complete sentences. Paraphrases are also encouraged (and both quotes and paraphrases should be cited). Limit full sentence quotations to two per paragraph (and not all paragraphs will need them).
I will need a Works Cited list.
Here is the outline (also available as email attachment if preferred):
Secondary Literacy Education in Georgia (focus on reading, but writing, digital (technology), and media literacies should be included)

Intro Need for focus on Secondary Literacy and Secondary Literacy Teacher Preparation
? Literacy practices for 9-12 grade education are not sufficiently reflective of the opportunities and skills our culturally and linguistically diverse students need to succeed.
(Include examples of 21st century skills needed, describe two or three specific literacy practices
that are not reflective.
What do these diverse students need? (list needs - opportunities and skills))

? The research base on 9-12 school literacy practices is insufficient to guide teacher preparation and school-based practice.
(What research do we have that we can use as a base? Names of authors and summaries would be helpful (citations so I can find them). Where are the BIG GAPS?)

? There is a lack of a concerted focus on 9-12 literacy equivalent to that placed on early literacy.
(Need two or three examples for comparison. What specifically do the early grades have that 9-12 is lacking? (reading programs such as Reading First, Reading Recovery, and ????))

Secondary literacy as it looks today in grades 9-12
Practices? (What does the research say? Possibly, focus on grammar, writing, classic literature, reading comprehension, standardized testing content)

Secondary literacy teacher preparation as it looks today
(Finding existing research here might be challenging: Might look at 2 regional, 2 research, 2 state, and 2 private university teacher prep programs and draw conclusions. Example: Secondary pre-service teachers at ASU are now required to take a certain number of reading courses (three hours, I think). What are some things being done in other GAS schools/areas?
Maybe look at which programs follow INTASC and NCTE/IRA National Standards, which content specific methods courses (English, Math, History/Social Studies, Sciences) offer pre-service teachers strategies for teaching reading and/or writing, etc.)


Recommendations (from scholars and research?)
? Use the Reading Consortium to establish a presence/voice for 9-12 literacy in Georgia
How? (get on the agenda at national conferences?)

? Empower educators to use students out of school, multiple literacy practices to bridge to re-envisioning school learning
(Possible Sources: Hull and Schultz, School's Out!; Smith and Wilhelm, Reading don't fix no Chevys. (there are a whole lot of others). Also: Hull, G., & Schultz, K. (2001). Literacy and learning out of school: A review of theory and research. Review of Educational Research, 71(4): 575-611.)

? Use GPS (Georgia Performance Standards) to create classroom experiences that provide opportunities for building skills our culturally and linguistically diverse students need to succeed in a globalized economy.
(Need some examples. One possible example: Skills needed according to Secretarys
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS):
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as7scans.htm )

? Provide ongoing professional development for teacher educators and classroom teachers to supplement content area knowledge with discipline-specific discourse structures.
(what does the research say? Courses? Inservice Workshops? List possible content.)

? Use nationally developed research agendas to examine and evaluate these initiatives.
(Such as? Any current agendas/agencies to contact?)


Conclusion/Summary. Literacy we envision
? Literacy that raises standards and expectations for all students, especially for the 42% in Georgia below the basic level on NAEP tests
(Elaborate on this. Demographics of students in that 42%?)

? Widespread awareness of importance of literacy strategies for student mastery of content in all disciplines
How should we propose to do this? (Professional development? Add/change current course content to include??)

? A recognition that student literacy practices outside school can serve as a bridge to in-school literacy and enhance content area teaching and learning
(How? Using popular culture texts (visual and print). Same possible sources as above: Hull and Schultz, School's Out!; Smith and Wilhelm, Reading don't fix no Chevys. (there are a whole lot of others). Also, Hull, G., & Schultz, K. (2001). Literacy and learning out of school: A review of theory and research. Review of Educational Research, 71(4): 575-611.)

? Development of school structures that support and encourage flexible, dynamic, collaborative, interdisciplinary literacy practices that reflect real world literacy competencies
(Need some examples here.)








Some Resources:

Stephen Phelps (2005). Ten years of Research on Adolescent Literacy, 1994-2004: A review. Learning Point Associates.
http://www.learningpt.org/literacy/adolescent/overview.php
http://www.learningpt.org/literacy/adolescent/define.php
Other learning point resources (bibliography, web sites, articles): http://www.learningpt.org/literacy/adolescent/resources.php

Donna Alvermann (2001). Effective Literacy Instruction for Adolescents. Retrieve from http://www.nrconline.org/publications/alverwhite2.pdf

Donna Alvermann (2003). Seeing themselves as capable and engaged readers: Adolescents and Re/Mediated Instruction. Retrieve from http://www2.learningpt.org/catalog/item.asp?SessionID=568722134&productID=162

Linda Harklau: From High School to College: Student Perspectives on Literacy Practices: Retrieve from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3785/is_200103/ai_n8931286
David OBrien (2003). Juxtaposing Traditional and Intermedial Literacies to Redefine the Competence of Struggling Adolescents. Retrieve from http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/obrien2
Dana Grisham (Technology and Media Literacy: What do teachers need to know? Retrieve from http://www.readingonline.org/editorial/april2001/index.html
Peter Fuentes (1998). Reading comprehension in mathematics. Retrieve from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3482/is_199811/ai_n8268484
Reading Research Quarterly Abstracts: http://www.reading.org/publications/journals/rrq/current/index.html
Hull and Schultz, School's Out!;
Hull, G., & Schultz, K. (2001). Literacy and learning out of school: A review of theory and research. Review of Educational Research, 71(4): 575-611.
Smith and Wilhelm, Reading don't fix no Chevys


There are faxes for this order.

Developing a Comprehensive Literacy Instruction



In this Paper you are to develop a comprehensive literacy instruction. The paper will help you become more aware of the concerns of the issues in teaching children's learning to read and write. This paper will focus on theoretical framework as well as the extensive practical literacy instruction program.



What is the comprehensive literacy instruction?



Comprehensive literacy instruction has four layers of meaning: 1) Love of reading. students want to read and write as much as they know how to read and write. 2) comprehensive literacy instruction relies on a sense of balance. Balance usually refers to multi-approach to teaching. like aloud read/write, shared reading/writing, guided reading/writing, and independent reading/writing. 3) Balanced program also means multi-content of instruction,. As National Reading Panel (2000) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) defined there five components as the most important to teach in reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension and fluency. 4) Our students need to learn strategies and skills that enable them to make sense of text.



Based on your working experience or your study interest, you can decide which age range your lesson plan will work for, preschool or kindergarten



The paper is one long paper (10 pages) However, you will write your paper Sections.





STEP ONE (SECTION !)



In Section 1, your first task is to outline your project of developing a comprehensive literacy instruction. Write a short introduction of your topic and how you will approach it. Secondly you need to focus on the first layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction: Love of reading. students want to read and write as much as they know how to read and write.

The first part of this paper should include the following:

A working title for the overall research project

The outline of your project. (need to clarify the grade level )

Why love in reading is so important in reading.

How to instill children's love for reading, as a teacher or parent, what are your suggestions or ideas for promoting children's motivation of reading?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP TWO (SECTION 2)



Now we move to the second layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Our goal of teaching reading is enable children to read independently. Comprehensive literacy instruction relies on a sense of balance. Balance usually refers to multi-approach to teaching. like aloud read/write, shared reading/writing, guided reading/writing, and independent reading/writing. Please explain each of the approach of reading/writing, what the role of each approach and how to balance the different approach in your teaching. Your paper should include three parts:

What the each of approach of reading/writing is?

What the role of each approach?

How to balance the different approach in your teaching?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP THREE (SECTION 3)



Now we move to the third layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Balanced program not only balance the teaching approach, also balance multi-content of instruction as well. As National Reading Panel (2000) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) defined there five components as the most important to teach in reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension and fluency. In this module you need to expound each of components in reading, what the role of each component in reading? How to balance all of components in your teaching. Your paper should include three parts:

What is each of the components in reading?

What is the role of each component in reading?

How to balance all of components in your teaching?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP FOUR (SECTION 4)



Now we move to the fourth layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Comprehensive literacy instruction not only focuses on balanced literacy program, it also emphasizes student centered learning, as a teacher, we must make decisions about what to teach and how to teach it, so that students view reading and writing as meaning-making activities, rather than as a mere collection of skills. Students need to learn strategies and skills that enable them to make sense of text. In this module follow what you have in module3, add the strategies we need to teach for each of component.

Based on Section 3, add strategies for each part.

List references



STEP FIVE (SECTION 5)



In this section you need to write a conclusion part for your final paper. Summing up Sections 1-4

Length: 2 pages

List references

The topic is: 'Kids Need to Develop Thoughtful Literacy', chapter 5 from the book What Really Matters for Struggling Readers,written by Richard L Allington

The journal should response to ideas such as :
* Thoughtful literacy/comprehension
* Effects of Thoughtful Literacy Instruction
* Research on Effective Comprehension Instruction
* Crafting oppurtunities that enhance students'
comprehension and instruction
* Thoughtful literacy and struggling readers

Requested writer ID#: Writergrrl101

You are to write a 1-page summary of the article below. *Do Not Use Outside Sources.*

Adult Literacy: Eunice Askov
The National Education Goals Panel 1994 stated that, every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights responsibilities of citizenship. Although this goal was to be achieved in the United States by the year 2000, it has, unfortunately, become only political rhetoric and not reality. While many explanations for the situation could be explored, the purpose of this chapter is to focus specifically on two major issues related to adult literacy namely: assessment and evaluation of literacy, and recruitment and retention of adult learners in programs. These issues are particularly problematic given the trends toward greater accountability using quantitative measures in the conceptualization of literacy as workforce development. Exploration of these two issues may also assist in understanding why this national education goal was not reached. It is the authors view as well as the constructivists approach to adult literacy education would help to address the central issues in literacy practice.
The Problem of Definition
First, however, the definition of literacy should be explored as a basis for discussion of the two issues. The National Literacy Act of 1991 defines literacy as: an individuals ability to read, write, and speaking in English, and compute and also solve problems at the levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve ones goal, in developed once knowledge and potential. This definition was based on an earlier, similar definition formulated by the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1986 panel of experts that led to a nationwide evaluation of the literacy abilities of young adults. This definition should be viewed, however, within historical context of an evolving concept of literacy that over time has moved from a school base model driven by the assumption that literacy for adults can be equated with that for children to a functional set of skills, or competencies to be mastered, to the more recent social and cultural notion of multiple literacies (see Merrifield, 1998, and the discussion that follows on the constructivist and social and cultural views of learning).
Nonetheless, consensus about what it means to be literate has never been entirely reached. The statement of Merriam and Cunningham, 1989 that the criteria for being literate remains elusive is as true today as a decade ago. According to Mikulecky 1987, cited in Taylors chapter on adult literacy 1989 It is unlikely that anyone will arrive at an acceptable level or criterion allowing one to accurately and usually state the number of illiterates. Some for example, Taylor and Dorsey-Gaines 1988 argue that any attempt to define literacy in this way is a political actthat literacy is not an entity, such as a predetermined set of skills or knowledge, that one either has or does not have. Similarly, Lankshear and OConnor 1999 argued that literacy is not a commodity but that literacy is practice the practice(s) people engage within routines of daily life. The author of this chapter shares this view as will become evident.
The efforts on the part of education establishment to define literacy overtime has shown a consistent propensity to take a positivists approach toward the issue. In other words, they demonstrate an underlying assumption that there are identifiable minimum skills that everyone needs to function in our society, which the skills can be measured by objective, mostly paper and pencil test, and that their acquisition equates with such objectives as, for example, the ability to compete in a global economy. There is an even more alarming tendency in the literacy feel today, however, that is created by the funding process for program development the monolithic purpose for adult literacy program seems to be job acquisition. Others stated objectives such as achieving ones goal and developing ones knowledge and potential are largely been ignored. Another way to view this issue, to which these authors subscribes, is based on a constructivists worldview that defines literacy as those skills, knowledge, and practices that are needed to function successfully in the society of couture in which the individual is situated or desires ( and has potential) to be situated. This definition implies significant variations among individuals and forces on providing adults the skills, knowledge, and practices that they find most useful for their lives. It also questions stereotypical views on what a person of a particular race, gender, class can do. This position implies taking a critical stance toward the status quo in the field of literacy today and may run counter to the current expectations of funding agencies.
Assessment and Evaluation of Literacy
How literacy is assessed (and illiterates counted) actually indicates how it is being defined. Traditionally, adult education followed a school base model of literacy in which literacy achievement was assessed and reported in terms of grade levels even though these are clearly inappropriate for adults. In fact, standardized test yielding grade level scores have been adult versions of commonly used standardized achievement test for children. Although there is disagreements in the field as to the extent or degree of the difference between children and adults as learners, clearly the more considerable amount and variation of experience that adults have acquired differentiate them sufficiently to make upgraded version of standardized achievement test for children inappropriate.
Student Assessment Models
Building on some early assessment models, including the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1986, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) defined literacy as using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve ones goals and to develop ones knowledge and potential ( Kirsch, Jungerblut, Jenkins, and Kolstad, 1993). Accordingly, the national assessment of adult literacy survey assessed literacy by analyzing the task and skills that compromise literacy behavior in the prose, qualitative, and document domains. The assumption is that skills and competencies that are assessed and mastered in one context are transferable to other context. (The rest of the commonly taught literacy skills, such as writing and speaking, were ignored possibly because they did not get their definition of literacy and/or because they could not be easily measured.) Then national assessment of the three domains were created to measure mastery of those skills on five levels with Level 3 being considered necessary to function in todays society and workplace. The national assessment of adult literacy set a trend in the assessment of literacy skills not only in United States but also internationally. The international adult literacy survey (IALS) (Organization for economic Co-operation and development {OECD}), and statistics Canada, 1995, which is the international version of national assessment of adult literacy survey, was administered in six countries (in addition to the US data from the national assessment of adult literacy survey) to provide comparative data on the mastery of literacy skills. An updated version from the same source 1997 adds a data from five additional OECD countries. Furthermore, the national assessment of adult literacy survey data have also been statistically manipulated with the U.S. Census data to provide synthetic estimates of the number of adults at each level (national Institute for literacy, 1998) in a leadership attempt to raise consciousness about literacy problems in local areas. While the national assessment of adult literacy survey definition of literacy is not yet universal, the fact that the GED testing services raised the passing score on the GED to correspond to the Level 3 of the national assessment of adult literacy survey may lead to its becoming eve more prevalent as a measure of literacy. Another national assessment of adult literacy survey administration in the United States is planned for early in this century to assess progress toward universal literacy as defined by the national assessment of adult literacy survey, which may further confirm its de facto definition of literacy. On the other hand, instead of analyzing the functional skills and task comprising literacy activities, as the national of adult literacy survey did, the national Institute of literacy (NIFL) launched a model called equipped for the future: a customer driven vision for adult literacy and lifelong learning(EFF) Stein 1995, that relied on participants perceptions of the skills needed to be a literate person. The model is based upon the responses of 1500 adult learners who responded in writing to the national education goals panel directive for adult literacy by stating what it meant to them. From the ethnographic analysis of these essays, for purposes of literacy in short options war identify, including use of literacy to gain information (access), to express oneself (voice), to take independent action, and to enable one to enter further education, training, and so on (bridge to the future). The analysis also identified three major roles for adults, as workers, family member, and citizen. EFF has forced on identifying the competencies for success in each world through role maps. Generative skills that cut across these roles -- communication, interpersonal, decision-making, and lifelong skills -- have also been identified in the process of development. This model is claimed to provide aid programmatic structure for comprehensive programs that no longer embrace a reproductive of the K-12 model of adult education with grade levels being the reporting framework for achievement. Attempts are being made through grants competitions from NIFL to involve the diversity of adult learners and providers in the process of consensus building. Assessment of literacy in this model is not definitive at this time although some type of competency assessment seems likely. Perhaps EFF, with its three identified rules for adults, will fare well in the environment of the new legislation that emphasizes literacy for work, family, and citizenship. The crucial issue is how progress and competency in each of these roles will be measured. Will the standards of commercial testing be applied, as suggested in the legislation, or will other means of demonstrating learning? Currently, no single assessment for measure seem to ride adequate information for all stakeholders (Askov, Van Horn, and Carman, 1997).
Program Evaluation
One of the major difficulties in adult literacy program is demonstrating student progress. What is the best measure of progress and impact? The adult education and family literacy act 1998 in the United States include the following as indicators of performance: (1) demonstrated improvements in literacy skills in reading, writing, and speaking the English language, numeracy, problem-solving, English language acquisition, and other literacy skills; (2) placement in, retention in, or completion of postsecondary education, training, unsubsidized employment or career advancement; (3) receipt of a secondary school diploma or its recognized equipment. The difficulties still remain in how to access these indicators, especially the first one. Politicians, assuming that adult education programs are supposed to prepare students for work, demand to know how many students have found productive employment. Students and instructors, on the other hand, want to know if students have met their own goals (regardless of whether these goals relate to work.) Students also want to see their own accomplishments through portfolios that demonstrate learning through students careful selected work samples from class (Hayes, 1997). However, program managers, who may be mandated by their funding agencies, often requires standardized testing as a seemingly objective measure of progress although the test scores usually do not indicate program impact and outcomes for students lives (Askov, 1993). In some states, such as California, were up adult education programs serve almost solely English as a second language (ESL) learner, there is a special need to address the issue that standardized tests are inappropriate for ESL learners (Guth & Wrigley, 1992). Unfortunately, it is difficult to find persuasive evidence of broad impact on adult learners and growth of skills and knowledge. According to both a recent program evaluation (Development Associates, 1994) and a study by the General accounting office 1995, evaluating the performance and quality of adult education program is highly problematic because of recurrent problems in collecting and analyzing information about program activities and because of high student dropout rates. The diversity of both Lerner and program goals is a major challenge to the program accountability. At the same time, several recent, large-scale, evaluation studies have failed to find significant overall impact of adult education or assessed literacy abilities, in either the educational component of welfare to work program in California (Martinson & Friedlander, 1994) or in adult literacy gains in the evaluation of the national Even Start Program that provides literacy instruction to children and their parents (St. Pierre, and Associates, 1993). Although further analysis of the national education of adult education programs (Fitzgerald and Young, 1997) identify some marginally significant gains in literacy test scores, the very high rate of attrition of participants and that longitudinal study, coupled with other data problems, makes be resulting slight increase tenuous at best (for example, they determined that persistence and adult education programs contributed significantly to reading achievement only in English as a second language ESL programs; negative persistence effects were are observed for adult basic education classrooms and labs.) Stitch and Armstrong's 1994 review of adult literacy learning gains also generally did not find convincing evidence of more than very modest effects of program participation of adult literacy development. Beder 1999 analyzed 23 of 89 identify impact studies, considering only the most valid and reliable studies and performing a case study of each. Then he performed a qualitative meta-analysis of these case studies, giving sure were studies more weight in the analysis of impact. The most common limitation of all studies was the large attrition of the learners between pre-and post testing. Another limitation was the variable length of time for instruction between pre-and post testing. The most serious problem, according to Beder, may have been the lack of testing validity since the test did not seem to measure what was being taught. These factors have made it increasingly difficult for the field to justify the importance of providing adult education services at public expense.
Student Recruitment and Retention
Students lack of motivation to attend and stay in adult education programs has been identified as a major research agenda item at the federally funded national center for the study of adult learning and literacy at Harvard University. The high attrition rate in programs can be attributed to various factors. In spite of all that has been written about making programs relevant to the needs of adult learners, many programs still offer canned instruction in the form of workbooks and/or computer programs that are not geared to individual needs. While adults may site childcare or transportation problems with a dropout -- and most do not hold multiple jobs with extensive demands upon their time -- many adults may leave because they do not receive what they came to the program to learn. Many adults also stop out, coming into and going from programs as their needs change. However, more subtle reasons may also exist. Cyphert 1998, and analyzing the discourse of blue-collar workers at a protection site, conclued that they are part of an oral culture that many have simply rejected the social, epistemological, and communicative presumptions of a literate rhetorical community. Furthermore, Cyphert nodes that individual pursuits of academic achievement may disrupt personal relationships and mutual dependencies that have become functional and comfortable over the years. Adults may find fulfillment of their social responsibilities to their families and workplace more satisfying than individual achievement and empowerment. Literacy educators, in turn, may become first-rate it went student dropout just when they began to achieve success. Teachers may not understand the cohesiveness and security of the oral culture that they are not likely to comprehend or value. Furthermore, literacy educators are probably not aware of the on equal power distribution in the teachers to the relationship. Sometimes in the political rhetoric the student is betrayed as a victim of poverty, racial termination, or inadequate schooling, with the adult educator (or volunteers tutor) seen as a savior (Quigley, 1997). Students may reject this tactic and on equal power relationship. They may, furthermore, not feel comfortable the ethnic, racial, economic, and cultural differences between the teacher or tutor (often a white female) and student (often a member of a minority group). School, even an adult education setting, may also bring back memories of frustration and failure associated with K-12 education. All these factors contribute to high student attrition. On the other hand, instructional programs that truly value students cultures, and create situations in which equality between teacher and student is achieved through exchanging talents and skills, are more successful (Fingeret, 1983).
Impact of Program Purposes on Recruitment and Retention
in the United States, title II also called the adult education and family literacy act -- of the workforce investment partnership act of 1998 defines the purpose of the act, and therefore the purpose of adult education programs that can be offered with public funding, to: (1) assist adults to become literate and obtained the knowledge and skills necessary for employment and self-sufficiency; (2) a Cisco adults who are parents to obtain the educational skills necessary to become full partners in the educational development of their children; and (3) assess adults in the completion of a secondary school education. Since the mid-1961 adult literacy programs were first legislated and funded, a tension has existed among the stakeholders about the purpose of adult education programs. The political rationale and the company rhetoric have been that the programs enables low-literate people become productive members of society. To justify funding, the numbers of people who do not hold a high school certificate is usually cited based on the assumption that a high school certificate is a basic requirement for employability and productivity in the workplace. More recently, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy Survey findings (Kirsch, Jungerblut, Jenkins, and Kolstad, 1993) have been sided with its alarming statistics with approximately half the adult population functions in at a plea for the modern high-performance workplace. Once funding has been secured, however, attention is usually turned to the concern for recruiting and retaining students. The program may be marketed to the consumer (that is, adult students) as meeting their needs rather than using the political rhetoric described above. However, many programs seem to have a revolving door in which students enter for a few sessions and then leave. Some for example, Askov 1991 have chewed it this problem with retention to inched option that has been designed on the K-12 model of six grade level expectations carried over to adult education without consideration of individual needs. In this paradigm, adult education is construed to be part of the formal education system instead of the non-formal education been you that emphasizes meeting the needs up individual participants. An alternative through the K-12 formal education model is the non-formal educational approach that makes education reveling to the immediate needs of the adult students. The role of the teacher is the model is to find out what adult need and deliver that in customized instruction. The assumption is that teachers are well-trained and capable of doing this. However, Wagner and Venezky 1999 point out that ... there exist remarkably few practical diagnostics instruments for use in adult literacy program, leaving instructors without sufficient information for tailoring instruction. Furthermore, the 1998 US law states that one condition of the program funding is whether the activities provide learning in real-life contexts to ensure that an individual has the skills needed to compete in the workplace and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. Despite the reference to real-life contexts and the skills required for citizenship, the spirit of the law seems to be on changing individuals to fit the needs of society, especially the need of the economic system for reproductive workers. Rapid technological advances and global competition have only served to increase the national obsession with productivity. The assumption is that what is good for business and industry is good for society and for individuals. This issue can be examined within the broad framework of the sociology of knowledge. Rubensen 1989 discussed to approaches relevant to adult education: the conflict paradigm and the consensus paradigm. The conflict paradigm, Jarvis 1985 calls the sociology of social action, aims to redress social inequalities and make society more egalitarian. Historically, before federal funding became so Dominick, adult literacy programs were developed mostly as social action programs with the goal of improving the lives of individuals through increased literacy skills and resulting empowerment. Even today, the adult education literature is replete with stories illustrating the quest for self-actualization of students (Demetrion, 1998), as a core value of adult literacy programs. Alternatively, the consensus paradigm favors an education system that differentiates the preparation of leaders from that of workers, which it argues supports a stable and prosperous economic and social status quo. Such are seen as agencies of socialization whose role is the allocation of manpower to of appropriate positions (Rubensen 1989). Publicly funded adult literacy programs that fall the letter and spirit of the law tend to operate within the consensus paradigm, especially in the context of the welfare reform act 1996. Funds are drying up in the United States for general community education and literacy programs as well as for popular education (Freire, 1973) or liberatory literacy (Quigley, 1997) and are flowing instead into the arena of work force preparation by delivering welfare to work programs. As this happened, the voluntary nature of adult literacy program changes as participants must attend the job training and literacy program in order to maintain welfare benefits. The function of adult education in this paradigm is to provide only the knowledge and skills required for employability -- to perform one's role for the good of society according to Rubenson 1989. Job placement is carried out as rapidly as possible -- regardless of whether or not the individual has sufficient literacy skills to maintain an advance in the job -- for the vast majority of literacy students this means for minimum wage, entry-level jobs. The sole value of a high school certificate now seems to be as the minimum credential required to make the person employable. The current system of literacy ensure option the United States is based on a deficit model. Rather than viewing adult learners as competent in other aspects of their lives, as urged by Fingeret 1983, they are usually viewed by policymakers as deficient. Adult literacy programs are being directed by federal funding o try to fix those who are perceived to be a drag on society those who'll par unemployable, under employed, or incarcerated -- supposedly due to their low basic skills. It is not surprising that the adult learners themselves are not eager to enter programs that perceive them in this way (Beder and Valentine, 1990).
Constructivist and Social and Cultural Views of Learning
The evolution of models of literacy training has been paralleled by an evolution in learning theories. Bredo 1997 discusses evolution, identifying two major schools of thought that have dominated learning theory in this country for most of the century: behaviorism and cognitivism. These two periods aligned with the double thrust of the consensus paradigm mentioned earlier, towards an education for workers (behaviorist) and one for leaders (cognitive), the former being taught to behave without thinking, the latter to think without any resulting Praxis or action. Learning theory has also historically had a strong individualistic bias, being under the purview of the discipline of psychology. A third approach has emerged more recently, combining behavioral and comets of learning theories with theories from sociology and anthropology and cultural studies. The synthesis yields a view of that learning is socially constructed as situated in specific context. One of the tenets of what has become known as situated learning theory is transactionalism or transactional contextualism, a view of that learning occurs in collaboration with others in the particular social world in which they find themselves (Bruner, 1990). Bounous 1996 has shown that non-formal education programs in which both teachers and students learn cooperatively can be built on the assumption that knowledge is socially constructed. Literacy contents of skills cannot be taught in isolation from the learners knowledge and experiences and from applications and action. Learners construct new knowledge and skills through interacting with others and the environment and by reflecting upon these experiences. Learners that closely resembled the real world of the participants occur as a social process involving others. Learners, with teachers, can co-create the curriculum and construct their own knowledge. In this model thinking and learning are fundamentally dependent for their proper functioning on the immediate situation of action (Bounous 1996). Also called the practice engagement theory (Reder, 1994), participants learn through social situations in which literacy is encountered and practice. They learn literacy practices through real-world knowledge and experiences, or simulations thereof, in which the skills must be applied, including interactions with others. From these activities learners construct meaning socially, not as isolated individuals, as a value laden process (Street, 1995). Teachers encouraged learners to become active readers by identifying and using their own background knowledge and experience and by negotiating and creating meaning before, during, and after reading. Constructivist learning, including the concept of situated learning, thus has great relevance to adult literacy programs, and the author's view. Teachers, with learners, can design instruction to meet the learners needs, interests, background knowledge, and skills. In fact, literacy activities become meaningful to the extent that they are needed in interactions with others and with the content to be learned. Common knowledge and experience of the participants are the basis for the literacy curriculum. In a family literacy classroom, for example, the common content could be the family concerns related to parenting decisions; in a workplace literacy setting it could be around be issues applicable in the workplace or needed for the job. Teachers can also encourage critical reflection (Shor, 1987) through questioning and discussion, a process that can lead to transfer from the classrooms with the learners daily lives. Teachers efforts, furthermore, can encourage transform of learning by explicitly teaching for transfer and offering practice in simulated or real world situation with others. For example, Taylor's 1998 comprehensive manual on the transfer of learning and workplace education programs in Canada describe strategies and provides case studies of transfer of learning. In other concept is also relevant to adult learning -- that of metacognition, learning how to learn or thinking about thinking (Baker and Brown, 1984). Metacognitive process provides the learning strategies that provide guidance when an immediate solution is not apparent. It includes both the knowledge about and the control of thinking behaviors and processes. For example, experience readers know and use strategies, such as using text structure, to better understand and remember information and complex reading materials (Paris, Wasik, and Turner, 1991). Metacognition also enables learners to monitor their own comprehension and self correct as necessary.
Recruitment and Retention from a Constructivist Perspective
One could expect a situated literacy learning model to have a positive impact on the recruitment and retention of students. As students become codesigner of instruction with the teacher, they become more engaged in the learning. The instructional implication for teachers is that they are no longer the authority figure but the facilitator and codesigner of learning experiences. The difficulty lies in assessment of it is be carried out by standardized tests that do not measure this type of learning. On the other hand, qualitative measures, such as student before meals, interviews, and observations, are appropriate for assessment and program evaluation in this learning environment. The challenge, then, is to implement the situated and constructivist instructional approach that foster maximum learning within the political agenda associated with the workforce investment partnership act of 19 that will determine how funding will be allocated to programs. What will be the instructor's reactions to the demands for greater accountability? Will they allocate the time required for the constructivist learning model, or will the temptation be to teach to the test in an attempt to produce gains that will assure the continued flow of funding? If they do the latter, will retention continue to be problematic? Will students really learn the content in such a way that they can use it in the everyday lives? Furthermore, the constructivist learning model may also conflict or complement, depending on implementations, with the national movement to towards skill standards for the workplace (National Skill Standard Act of 1994). If injection is designed around skill standards that relate to the learners knowledge and experiences, and if learners are encouraged work together in active learning and critical reflection to achieve the skill standard requirements, been learning can become relevant through the definitions provided in skill standards (Askov, 1996). On the other hand, if the skill standards are perceived as rigid standards of attainment that are taught with canned materials that do not engage the learners, then the constructivist learning environment will thrive, and learners may dropout programs.
Other Factors Affecting Recruitment and Retention
Technology is becoming increasingly important for the use with adult students as well as with instructors. The use of technology promises to enhance recruitment efforts and encourage retention in adult literacy program since learners often perceived the use of computers to be the modern way to learn. The fact that technology is driving the mole toward economic globalization and other societal changes (Bollier, 1998) makes the use of computers and other technologies even more important in adult literacy programs. Not only does it have enormous implications for literacy instruction but also for assessment (Wagner and Venezky, 1999). One result of the pervasiveness of technological innovations in society is the increasing availabilityof computers in the classroom. In fact, adult learners as well as their employers often view computer literacy as one of the basic skills needed to function in society. Technology use, however, does not guarantee effectiveness or student motivation. It constructivist learning model, however, can make technology very effective. Technology should be used in problem posing through simulation and microworlds that challenge adults with real-world problems that demand their application of basic skills (Askov, Bixler, 1998). Situational television programs, such as Crossroad Caf and TV 411, likewise provide real world context for learning literacy skills. Computer word-processing programs can also be effective as students improve their writing and reading skills to communications with others. A more sophisticated application of this same process is through the mail and interactive use of the Internet. In spite of extensive efforts to train staff, professional development remains a difficult in applying technology to instruction, however. Inch doctors are sometimes hesitant to relinquish control of instruction and let learners create their own learning environment (Askov and Bixler, 1998). Furthermore, the software is sometimes difficult to locate. Family literacy may also provide motivation for adult students to participate in adult literacy program. Now made officially part of the adult education act, and the retitling of the act as the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act 1988, family literacy is considered integral to adult education. The goal of the program is to improve parents literacy so they can help improve their children's literacy. The underlining assumption is that the intergenerational transfer of cognitive abilities in strong and that by improving parents literacy the children also benefits educationally (Stitch, McDonald, and Beeler, 1992). While several models for family literacy programs exist, many programs follow the model established by the national Center for family literacy. That model offers separate instructional program for adults and children, as well as time for parents and children to interact together -- time in which parents implement what they have been learning about parenting. Some researchers expressed concern that the program can lead to the imposition of middle-class values those of the teachers on to participants (Auerbach, 1989). Care should be taken that literacy activities that the parents are to implement with their children are consistent with, and enhance, the culture of the participants. Finally, recruitment and retention issues cannot be successfully address without that are trained inch doctors. Professional development is also being re-conceptualized in a constructivist view of learning (Floden, Goertz, and ODay, 1995). In this model, not only are students considered to be active learners, but so are their teachers who are also active adult learners, not passive recipients of knowledge that is doled out by an expert. As active learners they must make the new learning their own in order to incorporate that knowledge into practice. Bingman and Bells resource book for participatory staff development 1995, for example, follows this view. Furthermore, educators are not considered to be isolated individuals but as part of various networks that they can move in an alcove, depending on their changing levels of knowledge, interest, and needs. Building the capacity of these networks becomes important as they support the programs and individuals who work in various roles in the program. Instructors are also benefiting from participation in e-mail listservers on a variety of topics such as family literacy, workplace literacy, literacy and health, ES adult literacy, and adult literacy policy, all of which are supported by NIFL. With the field is becoming more professionalized through these efforts, the new legislation's emphasis on program quality will mandate greater accountability and professionalization then has been typical in the past. Service providers will either have to train their staff to meet these expectations or loose funding sources that were previously held.

Vision for the Future
The voices of all stakeholders and adult literacy programs need to be heard. Presently, the least heard a voice is that of the direct consumer, the adult learner, although some recent efforts are underway with focus groups of adult learners. If programs do not serve the needs, retention could continue to be a major problem. The new reader groups, Fortune, have been developing concurrently with the customer driven model for literacy and structure (EFF) promoted by the NIFL. Program alumni have been active in testifying before Congress as well as locally before funding agencies. They have assisted in recruitment efforts and attempted to make programs more responsive to adult learners. The small grass-roots movements have been supported largely by two national volunteer literacy organizations (Laubach Literacy Action and Literacy Volunteers of America) as well as the NIFL. While a doubt education should be viewed as a right, not as a stigmatized second chance program for those who have filled or dropped out from our school system, at the present time lifelong learning is only being given the service. Even those with high school certificates and college degrees and need additional education in the pursuit of lifelong learning in response to change society workplace (McCain and Pantazis, 1997). Some adults may not be able to assess their future education without basic skills instruction. Policymakers should broaden the concept of adult literacy programs to serve adults in all their basic educational needs infrastructure this learning environments. Many questions still need to be answered by research. Most of the funding for research has been centralized and the federal government of the United States and Canada (for example, in the US, most of the current research funding resides with NCSALL). View in symptoms for research in this feel are present to involved universities and researchers that are not part of the centralized federal funding. While a national agenda for research and development in the US has been derived from researchers and practitioners involvement (national clearinghouse for ESL literacy education, 1998; national Institute for literacy, 1998), many researchable questions remain and little support exists for answering them. Finally adult education program should not have to justify their existence solely in terms of preparing people for the workplace. Literacy program should be responsible for demonstrating gains in learning, but not in showing workplace employment impact. Literacy skills for community involvement as well as individual and family development should be considered just as important as insurance and progression in the workplace. Practitioners and researchers, as well as learners, who share similar views, must become politically active to make their voices heard. However, the workforce investment partnership act of 1998 has set the stage for the next decade and the US. It is now up to researchers to study the impact of legislation in an attempt to influence policy, and it is up to educators to provide as high a quality of basic education services as possible for adult learners in need within that framework.

This paper will have two Sections, both sections will be 2 pages (4 pages in total)


Section 1:
Throughout the four theories (read the theories in required readings below), do the theories make sense to you? what would you do to teach child to read? Please write a 2 page essay about the theories and their implication.
In this section for each of theories you need to explain:

For each theory:

Define the theory and describe it in terms of its basic assumptions?

State whether you agree with it (in part or in whole). Why or why not?

Explain the practical implications of the theory, in terms of how it would influence the kinds of activities or strategies one might use in the classroom.

Provide an introductory and concluding paragraph for the paper.

Required Readings For Section 1:



1. Cueing systems



Arthur, B. M. (1997), The four cueing system. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.siu.edu/~arc/chapter3.html.



Saskatchewan Education (2000), Integrating Use of Cueing Systems into Daily Reading Activities. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela/e_literacy/integrating.html



2. Automaticity



Hook, P.E. and Jones, S.D. (2002), The Importance of Automaticity and Fluency For Efficient Reading Comprehension Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.resourceroom.net/readspell/2002_automaticity.asp



Reading Success Lab (2004), Teachers Ask: What Is The Importance of Automaticity in Skilled Reading? Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://educator.readingsuccesslab.com/FAQ/Automaticity.html



3. Schema theory



SIL International (1998), Schema theory of learning. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.pnglanguages.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htm. It gives a good explanation about scheme theory.



Porter, K. Scheme theory. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://departments.weber.edu/teachall/reading/prereading.html#SchemaTheory, It discusses the Scheme theory and its implication.



4. Transactional theory



Probst, R. E. (1987), Transactional Theory in the Teaching of Literature, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/theory.htm, It explained what the transactional theory is.



Dulin, S. R. (2004), Exemplary literacy practice in transactional strategies. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.bridgew.edu/Library/CAGS_Projects/Sdulin/litresearch.htm, it discussed whether implementing transactional strategies instruction improve reading comprehension and enable a reader to move from an acclimated reader to a proficient reader.



Nettles, D.H.(2006) Comprehensive Literacy Instruction in Today's Classrooms Pearson Education.




Section 2:

Emerging readers need understandings of the elements of literacy such as letter knowledge, concepts of words and phonemes to develop their early reading and writing skills. Suppose you are a teacher, what activities/strategies you are using for promoting children's emerging literacy. Please write 2 page essay. This paper should include:

What is the emerging literacy?

What are the critical elements influencing children's early reading and writing skills? why?

If you have a position as a teacher, what activities/strategies are you using for promoting children's emerging literacy?

Required readings


Stratton, J. M., Emerging literacy, Emergent Literacy: A New Perspective by. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.braille.org/papers/jvib0696/vb960305.htm

Learning Point Associates (1999), Critical Issue: Addressing the Literacy Needs of Emergent and Early Readers.. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li100.htm

Michelle Hubbard (2000), shared book reading, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.hubbardscupboard.org/shared_reading.html. . It explains what the Shared Reading is.

Behrmann, M.M. (1995), Beginning Reading And Phonological Awareness For Students With Learning Disabilities, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/disability.phonological.html.

Hempenstall, K. (2003), Phonemic Awareness: What Does it Mean?, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.educationnews.org/Phonemics/phonemic_awareness_what_does_it_.htm

Saskatchewan Education (2000),Phonemic awareness activities, Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela/e_literacy/awareness.html

McGraw Hill Publishing (1997), Early writing development. Retrieved July 25, 2007 from http://www.lindaslearninglinks.com/earlywrtgdev.html. It explains the development of writing skill.

It is a K-12 Writing Application Project graduate class in which my part is to write a 10 pages overview about WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM.I'll present it as a workshop for teachers.
It has to be a literature review, a description of what is included and how it fits with "my" philosophy of literacy instruction, best practice in writing instruction, brain-based learning, and adult education.
The paper is going to be assessed based on "professional literature strongly supports focus and rationale of Writing Across the Curriculum. Language shows genuine intrigue and enthusiasm for the focus. Themes across sources are clearly identified and linked to the project focus."

WRITE A LESSON PLAN AND A REFLECTION OF THE LESSON AFTER IT WAS TAUGHT

Assignment requirements:
1. Write a lesson plan and a reflection of the lesson after it was taught
2. Total of 4 pages (2 for the lesson plan and 2 for the reflection)
3. Use the lesson plan template to write the lesson.
4. APA format with in-text citations and reference page
5. Use only the sources provided as references.
6. Times New Roman, size 12, 1 inch margins
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Directions for the LESSON PLAN
1. The lesson must reflect the interactive perspective as described in the Framework for Literacy Instruction.
2. Address the specific literacy needs of students A, B, and C in the areas of word recognition and comprehension. Provide opportunities for students to think about their strategy use and become self-regulated in their use of strategies.
3. Consider how you will shift the responsibility to students to be strategic and metacognitive and to independently use strategies.
4. Plan how you will collect data during the lesson through observation, student work, or by using other assessment methods.
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Background information on students A, B, and C

The students are struggling readers. There were three students in all: two boys and one girl. Reading assessments administered at the beginning of the year indicated that all three students are beginning readers. They read aloud slowly in a word-by-word fashion (Tompkins, 2010, p. 124). However, the text is below grade-level, they struggle with common high frequency words, and lack the phonics skills of typical second grade students. They continue to perform below grade-level expectations. Students A and B went from reading level sixteen to level eighteen. This is equivalent to progressing from reading like an end-of-year first-grader to a beginning-year second-grader. Since these students are in the middle of second grade, they are approximately five months behind their peers. Student C progressed from reading level twelve to level fourteen. Although he has made progress, he continues to read at a first grade level. This student is approximately six to seven months behind his peers. It was noted that all three students have a tendency to read in short phrases. Therefore, oral reading fluency will continue to be a focus for future instruction. Students also tended to take inappropriate pauses while reading. Sometimes they paused because they did not know the word. At this time, it was noted that these students appear to lack helpful word-attack skills. Student A often attempted to sound out the words while students B and C substituted similar words or asked for help. This indicates that these students need additional phonics instruction. All three students also need to practice self-correcting their mistakes.
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Use the following three texts in the lesson.
1. A Pocket Full of Kisses by Audrey Penn (2006)
2. Insects Up Close by Elena Martin (2003)
3. Diary of a Worm by Doreen Cronin (2003)
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Background information for these texts is provided below.
The first is an informational text called Insects Up Close (Martin, 2003). The second is a narrative text called A Pocket Full of Kisses (Penn, 2004). The third is an online narrative text called Diary of a Worm (Cronin, 2003). To provide an opportunity for students to practice their fluency, I selected A Pocket Full of Kisses (Penn, 2004). This book was an appropriate choice for practicing fluency because it is the sequel to a book we have read and enjoyed together called The Kissing Hand (2006). Students are already familiar with the names of the characters and increases comprehension. Students will not need to try so hard to understand the text and they can focus on their fluency. The second text, Diary of a Worm (Cronin, 2003) will also promote fluency practice. It is an online text that includes animation and audio. The words are highlighted as the story is read so students can read along. Students are seeing, hearing, and practicing fluency. This particular text is slightly higher than the student?s independent reading level. Therefore, scaffolding is needed in order for students to read the complete text. The last text, Insects Up Close (Martin, 2003) is an informational text that supports the animal theme, however it also supports our reading comprehension unit. This particular text highlights words with short vowel sounds. Words like bug, slug, and up are repeated throughout the text. This would provide an opportunity to complete a word study on short vowel words.
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Directions for the REFLECTION
1. Explain how you promoted students? strategic processing and metacognition.
2. Evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson based on specific data you collected during this lesson.
3. Explain what the data suggests about next steps for one or more students in the group and __what you might do differently next time__
4. You may write in first person.

The research paper should be 15 pages.


The class is a graduate Education class called Multicultural Education. The topic chosen for my paper is Multicultural Education in the NYC school system and the need to improve literacy instruction of students of diverse backgrounds. (This topic can be changed slightly. The paper does have to be on Multicultural Education with a focus on Literacy.)
I will be teaching in a NYC elementary school. Most of the students are underprivileged Hispanic, African Americans. I am a white female.

Course description:
The course will provide the student with and understanding of the cause and nature of multicultural education. If will provide an opportunity for students to explore and discuss the complex and varied issues of: culture, race ethnicity, gender, curriculum concerns, literacy, cognition, knowledge transfer, bias, and power relationships (Social, political, economic) in context of a pluralistic society. Historical background pertaining to colonization, immigration and other forms of cultural contact and its impact, in a culturally diverse society will also be presented.

What is Multicultural Education? (Combination of all described below)
Some discuss multicultural education as a shift in curriculum, perhaps as simple as adding new and diverse materials and perspectives to be more inclusive of traditionally underrepresented groups. Others talk about classroom climate issues or teaching styles that serve certain groups while presenting barriers for others. Still others focus on institutional and systemic issues such as tracking, standardized testing, or funding discrepancies. Some go farther still, insisting on education change as part of a larger societal transformation in which we more closely explore and criticize the oppressive foundations of society and how education serves to maintain the status quo -- foundations such as white supremacy, capitalism, global socioeconomic situations, and exploitation.



Despite a multitude of differing conceptualizations of multicultural education (some of which will be laid out more fully below), several shared ideals provide a basis for its understanding. While some focus on individual students or teachers, and others are much more "macro" in scope, these ideals are all, at their roots, about transformation:
?h Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve to her or his full potential.
?h Every student must be prepared to competently participate in an increasingly intercultural society.
?h Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning for every individual student, no matter how culturally similar or different from her- or himself.
?h Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of all types, first by ending oppression within their own walls, then by producing socially and critically active and aware students.
?h Education must become more fully student-centered and inclusive of the voices and experiences of the students.
?h Educators, activists, and others must take a more active role in reexamining all educational practices and how they affect the learning of all students: testing methods, teaching approaches, evaluation and assessment, school psychology and counseling, educational materials and textbooks, etc.

Some discussions we had in class:
?h Empowerment of minorities in schools and society.
?h Whites are born privileged.
?h preparing students to function in a more diverse society.
?h Critical educational theorists argue that teachers must understand the role that schooling plays in joining knowledge and power in order to use that role for the development of critical and active citizens.
?h Bilingual education today often sets children up for failure (in both schools and in society).
?h The role of schools in our society.
?h Standard and Standardized testing-disadvantages to minorities.
?h More diverse teacher work force is needed.

Some resources that might be useful.
Required readings for the class:
Life in Schools, An Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Foundations of Education, by Peter McLaren
Teaching and Learning in a Diverse World, by Patricia Ramsey (chapters 1-9)
American Education, An Introduction to Social and Political Aspects, Fifth Edition Joel Spring

Some useful websites:
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/index.html
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/education/multi/define.html




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To help you identify relevant information from your sources, you will complete a summary. While
you will not receive grade for this assignment, you are required to submit it for feedback. You
can choose from the following options.

Option #1: Investigate and Interview
You have already chosen a topic and created a working thesis statement for your research
paper topic. Find a non-profit organization (i.e., one that provides literacy instruction, a
support group for cancer patients, a shelter that provides refuge for battered women) in your
city connected to your topic. Explain your assignment and request an interview with a staff
member who is considered an expert in the field. Create 10 to 20 questions related to your
thesis statement to ask the interviewee. To formulate informed questions, research the topic
at the library or on the Internet. For the writing assignment:
? Create an introduction that includes the interviewee?s background. What is his/
her name? What is his/her position? How long has your interviewee worked at this
organization, and what is his/her role there? These are just some of the questions that
you can ask to help you build your introductory paragraph.
? Summarize the interviewee's responses in approximately three cohesive body
paragraphs.
? Finish with a concluding paragraph that explains how this interview helped you better
understand your chosen research paper topic.


Option #2: Getting What you Need from Periodicals
Using the periodical index at your local or college library, find sources for your chosen topic of
the research paper project. Find at least five relevant sources. From the sources that you find,
choose one to summarize. With this summary, you should include:
? An introduction that provides the source information (book, journal, article, etc.) and
offers the main idea of the information in the source.
? Approximately three body paragraphs to summarize the beginning, the middle, and the
ending of the piece.
? A conclusion that explains how this source helped you better understand your chosen
research paper topic.
The guidelines for this assignment are:
? Thesis: Please underline the thesis sentence in your submission
? Length: This piece should be approximately 1-2 double-spaced pages or 500 words.
? Header: Include a header in the upper left-hand corner of your writing assignment with
the following information:
? Your first and last name
? Course Title
? Assignment name (Summary Exercise)

I WROTE MY ESSAY ON NEPOTISM IN BUSINESS.

. Literacy Program Review
Write a program review, approximately 8-10 pages in length that explores
(but not limited to) the following:
? The background/demographics of the school or other work environment
? The existing reading/literacy programs
? The general philosophies of the teachers, administrators, and parents
? The challenges and assets of the setting
? Curriculum guides and technical materials in use at the location
? Recommendations for the future (an action plan, including professional development opportunities and possible revisions of materials in use)


I will send a school improvement plan and an example of a literacy program review.
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Literacy in context
Assessment Task
NOTE: This assignment has two parts.

Part 1: Student work sample analysis

1. Analyse ONE text (work sample) written (or read) by a student studying in your subject area.

2. Identify the student?s literacy learning needs using evidence from the work sample.

3. Design two strategies to support the student?s literacy development in this subject area.

Task description (Part 1)
i) Provide a very brief profile of the student who wrote the work sample (e.g. age, year, gender, background, school history etc).

ii) Analyse the work sample in terms of:

the degree to which the text displays the student?s knowledge of the field
the choice of text type
Has the student chosen the type of text demanded by the context?
the stages of the text
Has the student structured the text so it achieves the social purpose effectively?
the language features of the text (cohesion and grammar)
Has the student used the key language features of the text effectively?
the surface features of the text (spelling, punctuation, layout, presentation)
Has the student proofread and presented the text effectively?
iii) Identify the student?s literacy learning needs as demonstrated by this work sample, including needs related to:

field knowledge e.g. use of technical/specialist terms, symbols and categories
knowledge of the types of texts used to display knowledge in your subject area e.g. knowledge of stages typically used to ensure these texts achieve their social purpose effectively
knowledge of the language features of relevant text types e.g. features related to text cohesion, paragraph structure, grammar (sentence and clause structure, verb groups, noun groups and phrases), spelling and punctuation
iv) Identify two literacy teaching strategies that could be used to contribute to this student's literacy development in the context of your subject area.

Part 2: Literacy teaching sequence

1. Provide an outline of a unit of work in your teaching area.

2. Prepare a literacy teaching sequence relevant to the unit of work.

Task description (Part 2)
Provide a very brief outline, or overview, of a unit of work in your teaching area.
Design a literacy teaching sequence you could incorporate into this unit of work in order to support students of a profile the same as, or similar to, the student whose text (work sample) you analysed in Part 1.
Your teaching sequence should:

support students as they learn to read and/or write a specified text type relevant to your subject area
demonstrate your knowledge of the literacy development cycle presented in this unit
incorporate well-designed literacy teaching activities, including activities that put into action the two literacy teaching strategies identified in Part 1.

Assignment 2 - Locating a work sample
In order to complete Assignment 2 you will need to collect a student work sample.
Begin this task now by looking for:
? texts students are expected to read and understand in your subject area (i.e.
examples of the reading demands of your subject area)
? texts written by students in response to learning or assessment tasks in your
subject area (i.e. examples of the writing demands of your subject area)
Share with other students working in your subject area how you plan to collect these
texts. There are several ways to collect work samples, including:
? from a teaching context where you are working or doing a practicum
? by making contact with a school or TAFE in your area, perhaps a school where
you might work or do your practicum in the future, or a school your children
attend
? asking around among school and TAFE teachers and/or students in your circle of
family and friends
? using work samples posted on websites by departments of education or
curriculum authorities such as the NSW Board of Studies.
You may find other sources as well. There are some links highlighted in the Study
Timetable.
If you choose a sample text students are expected to read and understand in your
subject area, ensure the text is no more than one page in length. Also ensure that
the text achieves one, or at the most, two social purposes. Here are some examples:
? describes a phenomenon (e.g. an artwork, sporting equipment, a geological
formation, a geometry shape, a setting or character in a novel or play)
? instructs students on the steps they should follow to achieve a goal (e.g. the
steps needed to complete science experiment, play a sport, prepare a surface for
an artwork, tune a musical instrument, complete a maths problem)
? retells or chronicles events (e.g. an excursion diary, a biography, an historical
account, solution to a maths problem, what happened during a science
experiment, a synopsis of a novel or play)
? explains a process (e.g. water cycle, lifecycle of an animal, consequences of the
? Vietnam war, how a cake rises, inflation)EDEE#400#Literacies#in#Context#2#Assignment#1&2#?#Important#Information
? organises information (e.g. types of mammals, types of quadrilaterals, parts of
an internal combustion engine)
If you choose a sample text a student has written in your subject area, again ensure
the text is no more than one page in length. Also ensure that the text achieves one,
or at the most, two social purposes (see above).
If you choose a text from the Assessment Resource centre, make sure that choose a
sample which will show some literacy areas of need. Choose those samples which
are in the bottom range.
Before you use student work, please follow all the appropriate protocols to do with
privacy and permission. For example, you might need to:
? clarify that you have the student's and the school's permission
? remove any identifying information (names, name of school etc)
? ensure a website you take a sample from is open to the public
? reference the source accurately (see the relevant ASO fact sheets for how to
reference)
The best work sample to choose is one where a student has read or written a piece
of extended text - at least a paragraph in length, but no more than one page long for
practical reasons. This gives you an opportunity to assess all levels of the students'
literacy skill - text level, sentence level, word level and surface level (spelling,
punctuation, handwriting/typing, presentation). If you use work samples that only
include isolated words, sentence fragments or single sentences (e.g. filling in
missing words on worksheets), then it will be much harder for you to display what
you know and to achieve the Assignment 2 marking criteria.
You will need to include a copy of the work sample with your assignment so the
marker is able to assess your analysis. For this reason, choose a work sample that is
not more than about a page long because you must incorporate a scanned copy of
the work sample text into your assignment pdf.
If you have not yet completed a practicum, in order to locate a work sample, you may
need to contact students who are studying your subject area and/or with teachers
teaching this subject.
There are many ways of doing this. Here are just three examples:
? working as a volunteer in a school, a home work centre, after school program
? providing individual tuition e.g. private tuition, tuition with organisations such as
the Smith Family or Bernardo's
? talking with young people in your circle of family and friends about their studies
? joining a relevant professional association (as a student member) and attending
? training and information sessions given by that association e.g. ALEA, PETAA,
? History/English/Mathematics (etc) Teachers Association
The task of finding a work sample is part of the assignment. The task of locating a
work sample is a research task that contributes to your achievement of the unit
outcomes.
If you are not able to make the time to build your own contacts in your local
community, there are literally dozens of work samples in the NSW Board of Studies
ARC website: http://arc.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/. Work samples can also be
found on the Australian Curriculum website:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/
There may also be work samples on the web sites of other curriculum and
assessment authorities in Australia. For example, there are student work samples on
the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website.

Literacy specific:
A Vision statement: representing your vision of an English classroom
Describe this learning environment (what it looks like, sounds like feels like).
Be specific about programs, strategies, assessments, teaching philosophy, 21st century demands such as multliteracies, critical thinking, technology etc...theories, models perspectives

Articulate how you plan to achieve this vision justifying your claims with reference to relevant academic literature.

INSTRUCTIONS/SPECIFICATIONS:

There are four (4) articles on information literacy that I will subsequently be sending you by email. Please review these articles and then write a 700-1050-word paper critically analyzing the topic from a perspective that discusses Scholarship, Practice, and Leadership. The paper should demonstrate the following components:

1) An articulate comparison and contrast of the authors perspectives, building a greater understanding of each in the process.
2) The synthesis of a minimum of one current, peer-reviewed external source into the comparison. The fourth attachment I will be sending you is actually the external peer-reviewed article.
3) Appropriate use of APA formatting and style, scholarly tone, and substantiated evidence from the literature. You will be required to create an informed statement, not a personal opinion, regarding the subject. The paper should be written in third person, not first person.

This paper should not a report on information literacy. Rather, it is an exploration of how this topic influences Scholarship, Practice, and Leadership within a selected industry; in this case, Higher Education. The paper therefore should discuss the application of information literacy within the higher education discipline.
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Instructions This is in 2 parts the program budget and cost analysis NO DIRECT QUOTES the project is to develop a in-service to assist personnel in the hospice organization to provide intervention and strategic to deal with difficult dementia patients 3 reference for each paper no more the 10 pages for each paper will download project paper and instruction for each part 8 pages each developing inservice to educate health personel on dealing with difficult dementia patients in the hospice setting please see uploads
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Customer is requesting that (rbwpenn) completes this order.

Instructions
Reflect on your responses to interview questions 6, 7, and 8. Using the theories of learning and information from Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, explain the changes you will make to your responses to interview questions 6, 7, and 8. Each explanation must be 500 to 800 words in length and must use appropriate and relevant evidence from Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. You may also cite information from additional articles used in class or referenced in outside reading.

Book: Psychology Applied to Teaching: 12th edition
Author: Snowman, McCown, Biehler

Paper Format
? Number all interview questions.
? The response to each interview question must be typed below the appropriate interview question.
? Your explanation to responses to interview questions 6, 7, and 8 must follow interview question and response.

SAMPLE:
6. How would you accommodate the different learning styles of the students in your secondary school mathematics or science classes?
I will accommodate the different learning styles of the students by
Reflection and Explanation:
Vygotskys theory of cognitive development learning occurs when . Accordingly, the accommodations I mentioned will need to be modified. I will use different and appropriate scaffolds

? Font Size 12
? Font Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri
? Double Spaced
? 1 Margins (top, bottom, right, left)
? Include appropriate in-text citations using APA style
? Include reference list of sources used in APA style
? Include cover sheet (see Paper 1 guidelines)
? Header with Last Name ??" Page # at the top of each page, aligned to the right
Center and double space the following information on the cover sheet:
Clinical Interview Questions Revision
Paper 2
Your Name
EDSE 3500.002
Due Date

My original 6, 7, and 8 questions and answers:

6. How would you accommodate the different learning styles of the students in your secondary school mathematics or science class?

There are three main learning styles that I know of, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, which is a more hands on learning style. I have a very visual learning style so connecting and helping these kids will not be much of a problem. I think that solving example problems in detail will help the visual learners in my class. To help the auditory learners in my class I will explain the things that I am writing very loud and clear that way these students can understand what I am saying. I plan to ask the students questions frequently to make sure those more hands on learners are being involved, and also have them come to the board often to solve various problems that way I keep them interested.

7. Students will come from diverse backgrounds and have diverse needs. Describe how you plan to create and inclusive and assessable learning environment for students from various backgrounds who have different interests, ability levels, genders, students from whom English is not a first language, or students who legally require accommodations and/or modifications.

The first thing I would do in creating an inclusive and assessable learning environment for all students is first figure out what students legally require accommodations. I would fix my seating charts according to those who needed to be closer to the front to see or hear me better. I obviously could not figure out which students developed at a faster rate than others the first day, but after the first couple of weeks I would know and sit the more gifted students next to those who might not be on the same ability level in hopes that the more gifted could help me in teaching the lower level students. I also think that making the class be as encouraging and uplifting as possible would really help the diverse background problem not be existent. If everybody got along and we eliminated the criticism then the classroom could definitely function a lot better as a whole. The only way I know to really eliminate the criticism would be to discipline the ones criticizing. Making students feel as comfortable as possible no matter what their ethnicity may be would be my main focus when creating an inclusive and assessable learning environment. That way they are not afraid to get an answer wrong or ask questions.

8. A student is doing poorly in your secondary school mathematics or science class: what would you do? Note the tasks, plans, background information, or knowledge you will consider in helping this student.

When I become a teacher I plan to have before and after school tutorials to help those that may be struggling. I will probably work out some type of extra credit for the ones that actually attend the tutorials. So if a student were doing poorly he/she could have the opportunity to have one on one time with me so I could try and explain it a little more clearly. My mathematics teacher in high school used this system and it seemed to work really well from my point of view. The extra credit system really encouraged kids to come before and after school to get that extra help.

Instructions: Write/Type answers in an essay format. Use standard 1 inch margins and Times New Roman typeface and double spacing). Please do not write in one sentence or two sentence paragraphs. Write in full sentences. Please use citations in EVERY answer.

Most importantly, provide support for viewpoints from the readings or other literature that you have encountered. Cite these sources according to APA style.

Provide a reference page cited in APA format. Cite ALL source in the text of the document. Citations from lots of websites are not considered scholarly. Citing articles from refereed journals and citing books are better than citing lots of websites.


1. Learning occurs in a social context that includes technology. (must be 2 pages)

a) Using evidence you select from WITHIN AND OUTSIDE the readings for this course, argue for or against the existence of the digital divide.

b) Assuming the digital divide exists, suggest two (2) solutions to this problem. Describe the solutions in detail and support them with evidence from the literature.

Note: See attached articles.Narrowing the Digital Divide & Digital Dive Women


2. Andragogy is a set of assumptions about adult learners. (must be two pages)

You need to teach a course session of your choosing using andragogical principles.
1. List the course session name and two course objectives
2. Demonstrate how andragogical principles would be used to achieve these course objectives. Use the literature to support your application of andragogy to a course.

Note: See attached powerpoint. And article by Knowles & Wlodowski

3. Using evidence you select from your readings explain how race, gender and sexual orientation can affect adult development or learning. Please provide CONCRETE examples of EACH positionality (e.g. one example for race, one example for gender, and one example for sexual orientation). Use the literature to support your assertions . (Must be 2 pages)

Note: See attached articlesTennant & Pogson.Race, Class, gender on Learning.Student Experiences
4. Hansman (2001) discusses the similarities and differences between situated cognition and experiential learning. (must be 2 pages)

a) Name the ways in which situated cognition is similar to experiential learning.

b) Explain how situated cognition and experiential learning differ.

Note: See attached articleHansman Context Based Adult Learning
http://www.reviewing.co.uk/research/experiential.learning.htm


5. Two perspectives on learning include: self-directed learning and transformative learning. (must be two pages)

a. What are similarities between the two theories?
b. What are differences between the two theories
c. Using evidence you select, argue which perspective provides the best explanation for how adults learn. Be SURE to include references.

Note: See attached article by Grow, Canton, Moore, Transformative Learning in Botswana, Transformative Learning in MGT

6. Compare (tell similarities between) and contrast (tell the differences between) critical and post-modern theory. Have a minimum of two similarities and two differences. (must be two pages)
Note: See attached article by Kilgore

Please feel free to use other scholarly citations.


Cite literature to support your answer.






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Instructions:
Unit Content Comprehension and Analysis Tasks
You have two assignments to complete for this portion of your Required Work this unit - a paper and annotated bibliography.
Unit Paper
Write an empirical paper for this unit. This paper should be approximately two pages long, and should be placed in the appropriate dropbox. Use the two guidelines below for your paper:
From the texts, select four chapters you find most relevant to this unit and make a bullet list of the specific points you found most helpful in relating to the elements of leadership. You may turn this in as a part of your paper.
Review the online readings and write a response that demonstrates that you have contemplated the material.
Internet Research Assignment - Annotated Bibliography
Find ten Internet resources that you find particularly fascinating and that relate to the topics and themes of this unit, and placed in the appropriate dropbox. Include a paragraph description of each.

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Instructions:
Prepare a MEMO. The Memo parameters to be followed are listed below, where each category holds roughly equal weight:

1. Assignment Does the memo respond effectively to the question or assignment?
2. Analysis Does the memo present clear and credible claims? Are the conclusions supported by the material identified or cited in the memo?
3. Grounding Does the memo make effective use of course materials to establish a firm theoretical and conceptual grounding?
4. Readability Is the memo efficient and well--?organized? Is the language clear? Is the paper generally free of typos, grammatical errors, and other distractions?


Readings:

Theme: Evidence, Inference, and Policy Decision

1. Edward Tufte, 1974. Ch. 1--?2. Data Analysis for Politics and Policy. Prentice--?Hall.
http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/dapp/

2. William T. Gormley, 2007. Early childhood Care and Education: Lessons and Puzzles, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.

3. David P. Farrington. 2003. Methodological Quality Standards for Evaluation Research. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

Memo #1: You are an analyst working for a policymaker in either early childhood
education or the field of criminology. You have been given the task of developing
450--?600 word) memo explaining the standards Gormley and/or Farrington recommend.

Recommended Additional Readings:

1. Ray Pawson and Nick Tilley. 1997. What Works in Evaluation Research? British
Journal of Criminology.

2. Paul F. Steinbert. 2007. Causal Assessment in Small-N Policy Studies. Policy Studies Journal.

3. Clinton T. Brass, Blas Nunez-Neto, and Erin D. Williams. 2006. Congress and Program Evaluation: An Overview of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) and Related Issues. Congressional Research Service. Report for Congress. RL33301 http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/permalink/meta--?crs--?9145:1


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Instructions for International Business Paper: Guidelines
(Major Project)

MUST Be Referenced CAREFULLY using APA style. The project paper is explained below.

Country for this report: "Iran"

? I have order from your company before and request that the last writer (Teresa) NOT be assigned to my paper; the Order ID# was 99973 from the last assignment.

International Business Project Paper: Doing Business in another Country

Scenario: You want to expand your company by either setting up operations in or exporting your product to the country of your choice. You are seeking investors in your company to generate additional capital to fund the expansion. You have come to me to invest in your company. You need to convince me that you are very knowledgeable about the country and that you know the types of businesses or products which will be successful in that country. You have to convince me that I will not be making a mistake and that I will make a profit by investing in your company and I will not lose my money.

Scope of Work for this Project is as Follows:

1. Make a clear and detailed identification of the following factors of the country of your choice that will affect doing business there:

a. History of the country
b. Economics of the country
c. Cultural aspects of the country to include business etiquette
d. Legal difference in the country that will affect doing business in that country
e. Demographics of the country
f. Educational system in that country
g. Political system of the country
h. Status of the infrastructure in the country
i. Status of the use of technology in the country
j. Role of religion or religious groups in the country

2. Analyze these factors and the impact they will have on your business.

3. Give a valid conclusion about whether you would or would not do business in the country. Recommend what type of business or product you think would be successful. If you would not do business in the country, explain that conclusion.

Write at least a 6-page paper addressing items 1 ? 3 and convincing me that you understand the country and that you will be successful in your business venture in that country or you have chosen not to do business in that country and why. The six pages exclude the title page, the table of contents, and the reference page. You should use reliable and valid information from reputable sources.

Following are some guidelines to use in writing the paper:

1. The paper should have an introduction, a body with appropriate headings and subheadings, and a conclusion. Include a cover page, a table of contents, and a reference page. The paper must be a minimum of 6 pages, not including the cover page, table of contents, or reference page(s).

2. The paper should have a minimum of six (6) reliable, professional sources. Do not use Wikipedia or other encyclopedias as sources. Sources should be chosen from books, newspapers, and professional journals. Select sources from at least six (6) different publications. For example, you may find articles in two different issues of the Harvard Business Review, but the publication itself counts as only one of the six sources. The sources should be up-to-date (last five years) and reputable. At least four of the sources should be from a professional or academic journal. Only one source can be used that is obtained from a ?Google? search. Please do not use encyclopedias, textbooks, or dictionaries as sources. Please be mindful that Internet sources can be unreliable. Remember that whether you paraphrase (preferable) or quote (use sparingly), you must indicate the source of your data.

3. Arrange the paper logically. Be sure that your topics and sub-topics follow logically and that you write transition sentences joining the various topics.

4. "MINIMAL" direct quotes and correct in-text citations. Score SHOULD BE LESS THAN 10% (VERY IMPORTANT) !!!

5. Must make clear and detailed identification of relevant global factors. (Economic, Cultural, Legal, Demographic, Technological, and Political)