Writing across the curriculum as a learning and skill development tool

Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) programs became popular during the mid-1970s in response to a perceived deficiency in students' writing and thinking abilities. Such programs grew out of the conviction that children are capable of learning in a variety of creative ways, ways that go beyond traditional pedagogical methods of rote and lecture (Williams, 2000). Writing was seen as a method for encouraging that kind of learning, and a gradually developing body of research supported that idea, characterizing early WAC efforts (Williams, 2000). WAC programs in the K-12 grades advocate the incorporation of writing into all classes and all subject areas, as a means of helping students to improve their writing skills and to use writing as a learning tool. Programs have been established at public and private grammar schools and high schools all over the country.

WAC programs are premised on theories maintaining that writing is a valuable learning tool that can help students synthesize, analyze, and apply course content. They are based on the theory that if students write reactions in their own words, information is comprehended and retained more accurately. WAC programs utilize writing as a method of learning, using journals, logs, microthemes, and informal writing assignments. Additionally, since students write more frequently, their writing and written communication skills are improved. Writing in different disciplines is also a WAC approach that is based on the understanding that each subject has its own conventions of language use and style and that these conventions must be taught to students so that they might successfully participate in academic discourse (Williams, 2000). Research indicates that reports, article reviews, and research papers are the most commonly used assignments in writing in different subjects (Williams, 2000).

Literature Review

Research since the mid '70s suggests that in and many instances, writing can facilitate more creative, more active learning of course content. Several research studies have indicated that writing is a unique mode of learning; writing is unique, writing forces the integration or synthesis of ideas, writing promotes a detached critical perspective, and writing can be an introduction into a discourse community. Ackerman (1993) reviewed 36 studies of writing to learn, finding mixed results of writing on retention and understanding of the written-about material later. Bazerman (1982) concluded that students writing in different subjects need to understand how writing in a subject reflects thinking in that subject, how writing is problem solving, and how controlling one's own writing process relates to the kind of writing one produces. Emig (1977) also offers support for the theory that writing is a unique mode of learning. Results from this study found that although similar to talking, writing is different in that it is an artificial technology (Emig, 1977). Furthermore, writing and learning are multirepresentational, integrative, and self-rhythmed (Emig, 1977).

Research by Ernest (1985) provides an overview of an art classroom technique education in grade schools. She concludes that a workshop approach to teaching art in grade school takes away emphasis from producing natural art, placing more emphasis upon the thinking and learning necessary for creating art. Students are asked to write about what they learn, thus enabling the teacher to gain insight into their progress and the motivations behind their choices in subject and medium (Ernest, 1985). Farris & Smith (1992) also found that the use of writing in typical non-writing courses places a greater emphasis on thinking and learning. Writing-intensive courses help faculty to engage students' intellectual abilities beyond those required of the class lecture course pattern commonly found in larger schools (Farris & Smith, 1992).

Research also indicates that students need experience with the poetic, expressive, and transactional functions of writing to become good writers. However, studies indicate that most educational uses of writing are only transactional, not expressive (Freisinger, 1980). The lack of emphasis on expressive writing is related to the poor cognitive development of high school and college students (Freisinger, 1980). Research by Fulwiler (1980) supports the use of journals, as a form of expressive writing, in all subjects. Fulwiler indicates that expressive writing is not valued, but should be as a way of increasing the amount of writing that students do and exposing them to different forms of writing. Fulwiler also argues that students will value the importance of writing if it's valued in all the subjects outside of English.

A review of the relevant literature reveals that 7th -12th grade English, Social Studies, and Science teachers generally agreed on what kinds of writing activities each uses in his or her classroom. Most teachers report a need for cross-curricular coordination in teaching writing, but did not see any move in that direction occurring in their school systems, and did not feel qualified to lead such activity (Tighe & Koziol 1982). Tighe and Koziol (1982) conclude that there is a need to continue training teachers to teach writing, and that they need to be encouraged to use more prewriting and more expressive writing activities. Other research involving lower grades indicates that some types of writing assignments may not even need to be graded, or even read or reviewed by teachers. These types of writing assignments are meant to be used for their individual educational value.

Peer review and self-evaluation as well as holistic scoring provide positive examples of grading writing assignments. WAC programs that emphasizes correct English, or that force students to write only in prefabricated forms, ignore the idea of writing to learn. As a result, the use of expressive rather than transactional writing, is perhaps the better method to avoid burden of correction and restriction on form and content of writing. The academic case approach has been cited as a method of assignment design, in which case studies in a variety of subjects are used. In each case study, some facts are presented, rules given, and questions asked which demand interpretation or analysis. This forces the student to use and learn semantic concepts.

A review of the literature also indicates that writing centers are an effective WAC learning tool that can be implemented in the higher grades. According to Harris (1992), a writing center can help facilitate WAC projects by coordinating projects involving various interests in the university constituency.

Research by Law (2000) indicates that WAC programs generally involve the writing center at some level, and thus will bring faculty into closer and more frequent contact with the writing center. According to Law (2000), key areas that must be negotiated in working with faculty are 1) defining the relationship between the writing center and WAC; 2) shaping faculty attitudes and expectations concerning the writing center; 3) providing special training to faculty and students; 4) locating and training tutors to work with specific disciplines; 5) dealing with increased workload as a result of WAC; and 6) locating WAC resources for both the writing center and WAC faculty. Other successful strategies include linking writing assignments to course objectives, sequence assignments and carefully design assignments in advance.

Another factor affecting WAC programs are the challenges made in regard to their effectiveness and worth. This issue has been addressed frequently in research concerning WAS programs. Jones and Comprone (1993) define and suggest solutions to the major problems facing WAC programs. They claim that one reason that WAC is not permanent is its failure to coordinate the administrative, pedagogical, and research aspects of programs. Their solutions include centrally administering the program; linking faculty, grad students, and discipline-specific research across the curriculum with program development in WAC; and conducting interdisciplinary research into writing conventions and processes (Jones & Comprone, 1993).

WAC program Techniques

Researchers have suggested the implementation of the following techniques in order to operate a successful WAC program. Such techniques include guiding student notetaking through outlines and study guides, requiring students to respond to lectures in ungraded journals, and making short writing assignments on course materials to give instructors the opportunity to respond to students' writing and provide constructive feedback. Additional techniques include giving essay tests to encourage spontaneous writing and give students experience in organizing material quickly and having students evaluate each others' written work. Moss and Holder (1981) recommend the use of collaborative learning strategies to prepare students to participate in the types of team projects they will encounter in their professional lives. Students work in small groups to complete course assignments, and provide each other with feedback on oral presentations, rough drafts, and final papers (Moss & Holder, 1981).

Research by Drummond (2002) outlines the best practices used in the implementation of WAC programs. According to Drummond, effective teachers offer ways for the learners to take an active role, for at least a portion of the class, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate strategies, and evaluating the outcomes, both internal and external. Drummond states that learner participation is a significant element of any WAC program. According to Drummond (2002), learner's readiness and willingness can be optimized by offering an invitation to step into the learning process and take responsibility for their own learning.

Although many different activities can be created to enable learning, the teacher's initial role is to set conditions to draw forth the past experience of each and every learner (Drummond, 2002). Initial questions may arise in the discussion that can guide subsequent experiences, and disagreements can illuminate for the teacher an initial focus for the class to study (Drummond, 2002). Next, teachers document the course of the learning experience, gathering notes, audio and video recordings, learner's initial products, and dialog. Finally, at the end of the experience, learners reflect together upon what has occurred for them over the duration of the work. This reflection socially constructs meta-cognitive understanding of learning as a human activity Drummond, 2002).

According to Drummond (2002), the teacher has experience in the evolution of knowledge, skills and dispositions that lay beyond the learner's awareness. The teacher also brings his or her evolving understanding of the relation of the current study to what it means to be human. The content of a learning opportunity is ultimately social; it relates to what it means to be fully enabled to act for the welfare of self and society (Drummond, 2002). Finally, Drummond (2002) states that the experience of the classroom itself is continually open to analysis. By involving every participant in reflection, holding a mirror to what they do, the teacher both illuminates and engenders the dispositions to learn (Drummond, 2002).

Philosophy of Literacy Instruction

Finally, the research indicates that writing is a powerful learning tool, and teachers can help students master the techniques of writing to learn. When writing expressively, students are concerned with getting it out and getting it down, rather than with writing to please the teacher (Williams, 2000). Writing can be a powerful tool for students who need to internalize content and to discover a relationship between school content and their own knowledge. Additionally, teachers who use writing as a learning tool across a variety of subjects provide students with frequent opportunities to write expressively in order to wrestle with classroom content. They may require students to keep a content journal where they will be able to write or think freely, without concern about their prose being marked for errors (Williams, 2000). Students might conduct long-term observations of some phenomenon through the journal. In their journals, students can take risks they would never take in writing to be corrected (Williams, 2000).

A successful WAC program model would encourage students to revise drafts of their work focusing on coherence and clarity of expression, and read their papers aloud to themselves or to peers during the revision process. Students would receive a lot of feedback on their writing from both teachers and peers, without the pressure of grading. Class time spent on writing whole, original pieces by establishing real purposes for writing and student involvement in the task would be increased, and time spent on isolated drills involving grammar, vocabulary, spelling, paragraphing and penmanship would be decreased. Additionally, teacher modeling writing as a fellow author and as a demonstration of processes would be increased. Teacher talking about writing but never writing or sharing his or her own work would also be decreased.

Other elements of a successful WAC program, as implemented in the K-12 grades would be to increase the study of grammar and mechanics in context, at the editing stage. Additionally, isolated grammar lessons would be decreased, given in order determined by textbook, before writing is begun. Language errors would be addressed in context to enhance transfer of new skills to new situations. Finally, the implementation of a writing program would only enhance learning, securing the future of our leaders.