African-American Women and Womanist Theology

African-American Women and Womanist Theology

Religion has been a strong part of the black culture since the beginning of time. Upon migration to the United States, religion and the church was a source of survival, especially for black women. Black women theologians practiced throughout the Civil Rights Movement, the responsibility to exercise racial uplift and social responsibility as the core of the religion life.

As womanist theology emerged, it criticized the black male theologians for ignoring the treatment of black women and their ideas with respect to black theology. It criticized white women for excluding the experiences of black women and the racism of white men.

Black women theologians felt that the experience endured by slavery was the basis for moving towards freedom.

Education, poverty and equal rights were at the forefront of the black women's struggle. According to Rosetta E. Ross, "Because of the racism historically inherent in American society, many scholars argue that there was not or ever could have been a Black religion of the pre-Civil Rights Era that focused solely on other-worldly ends."

During the feminist movement, the word 'women' was used as a universal term by writers and speakers, however, the struggle for black women and white women were different, in that black women not only had to contend with race, but gender as well.

Walker defines womanist, as a women in control "wanting to know more and in greater depth than is good for one -- outrageous audacious, courageous and willful behavior."

Walker termed 'womanist' as a means for black women to characterize their existence.

It was the mission of womanist theologians to seek justice for all, regardless of race, color, creed or gender. Through religion they were able to help black women's surpass their struggle and experiences while acknowledging their success.

"What if I am a woman; is not the God of ancient times the God to these modern days? Did he not raise up Deborah to be a mother and judge in Israel?" This quote from Stewart's speech 'What if I Am a Woman' encouraged women to take measures to overcome oppression and injustice.

During this era it was unacceptable for women to speak and voice opinions. As a result, Stewart drew criticism from those who opposed her philosophy. She defended her position in this speech in what is noted as her farewell speech to Boston. She stated "For I find it is no use for me as an individual to try to make myself useful among my color in this city." "Let us no longer talk of prejudice, 'til prejudice becomes extinct at home. Let us no longer talk of opposition, "til we cease to oppose our own." She felt that it was her God given right to speak as a woman and for women.

Stewart was the first black female political writer. She was an activist against slavery and a voice for the empowerment of black women. Characterized by some as a fearless woman, Stewart knew that it was God's mission for her to preach his word. Stewart delivered her speech "What if I Am a Women" in front of a diverse group of men and women.

As a free slave, Stewart believed that religion and African-American empowerment could bring about self-respect and confidence to African-American people. She proclaimed in her speeches and lectures that African-American's were not 'free' and held little ambition with any opportunity for advancement in society. She challenged black women to make efforts to move beyond the struggle of identity and oppression.

Orphaned at the age of 5, Stewart lived and worked for a Clergyman's family. This association created an interest to study the bible at a Sabbath school at the age of 15. Upon her marriage to James Stewart, a ship agent in 1826, they collaborated and joined forces with David Walker, an activist, writer and leader of Boston's African-American middle class. Walker, a free slave, authored four articles, "David Walker's Appeal."

Walker's articles were controversial, calling for African-American's to rebel against their masters. Walker's approach and faith influenced Stewart.

Upon the death of Stewart's husband and Walker in 1830, Stewart pursued her calling. It was this period of the Second Great Awakening when people of the church called for social reform. Stewart shared their outcry. As an activist, she was well aware of the lack of opportunity for education, entrepreneurship and rights for women. She started preaching at different denominational churches throughout the community, campaigning for African-American's to become active in the cause for justice. She reprimanded whites for not taking responsibility for their role in the abuse and deprivation of the children of Africa.

In excerpt from her speech, "What if I am a woman," she asked questions to support her view and provided examples of biblical women who were not condemned by the High Priest for exercising their voice. She advised women to not allow their gender to be a hindrance or define their character. She asked, "Did St. Paul but know of our wrongs and deprivations, I presume he would make no objections to our pleading in public for our rights."

Stewart found compassion in religion. After leaving Boston, she submitted a manuscript, "Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, the Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build" to the Liberator, an abolitionist newspaper run by a white editor, William Lloyd Garrison, who accepted, and published the paper. This manuscript is noted has her public announcement that she would dedicate her life through religion to address the needs of humanity.

Stewart continued her journey as a contributing writer for the Liberator's ladies department. It was through her writings and with the support of William Lloyd Garrison that she could focus on education, faith, prosperity, and equal rights for women. She contended that race and ignorance carried a stigma that prevented woman from advancing in society. She questioned "How long shall the fair daughters of Africa be compelled to bury their minds and talents beneath a load of iron pots and kettles?" She felt that women were unaware of the power within in them. She advised women that it was their moral responsibility to contribute to society and help change the negative perception of the African-American community.

In 1834 Stewart moved to New York City, where she continued her mission for the abolition of slavery and education for African-American women. During this time it was illegal for slaves to learn to read in the South, and Northerners perceived the quality of education provided African-American children was inferior to a white education. Stewart became involved with African-American women literary groups and found schools to start teaching African-American children.

Stewart was among the first African-American women to address a diverse audience to include black and white women and men. On September 21, 1832, Maria delivered a speech in New England titled "Why Sit Ye Here and Die? This was Stewart's second published speech. In this speech, she emphasized that black women deserved a voice in society and an opportunity for education.

Stewart encouraged African-American women to support one another and strive for entrepreneurship. She stressed that women would die if they did not persevere. She was critical of the African-American community for not standing up and taking a stand against oppression. While addressing the need for leadership, she also emphasized the need for ethical conduct and respect as criteria for gaining freedom of black people. She encouraged both races, black and white to take ownership for their actions.

Stewart, a renaissance woman of her time, set precedent for African-American women. She reacted forcefully to her belief in the power of education, respect for one another and justice for humanity. A replica of a struggle that has continued into the 21st century. Her boldness inspired by her faith paved the way for freedom, dignity, and justice for humanity.

Nannie Helen Burroughs, a gifted writer and lecturer wrote a syndicated column for the Associated Negro Press in the 1920's and 1930's covering political commentary. In her writings she discussed racial leadership, the black church and its religious practices, and the struggles of the black community. She challenged African-American's to assume responsibility for changing their conditions.

Burroughs was outspoken about her views of the black church and issues she considered vital to African-Americans. According to notes prepared in the Library of Congress, Burroughs, and Booker T. Washington favored each other with respect to their lectures and tone. She stressed the need for sound leadership. She commented that "Negroes had invested more money in churches than they have in any other enterprise in the world."

It was her opinion that the churches were not allocating money wisely, and in turn, the members were not valued or appreciated. It was Burroughs vision that "Churches under intelligent leadership can be run very much like a school and be made service stations."

Burroughs was active with many black women groups in striving for social justice, education, social reform and participation in political concerns.

Throughout her career she argued with leaders of the National Baptist Convention who refused to recognize black women or provide them opportunities for leadership in the church. In search for honest leadership in the church she wrote "Character is the first qualification," without that, the minister is a menace." She stated that ministers should have a clean and unselfish purpose, be innovative, dedicated to the issues of the community, sincere in their mission and not lazy.

In effort to stay true to her vision for black women, Burroughs introduced "Women's Day" to the National Baptist Convention in 1901. The idea was to incorporate women from congregations and train them to publicly speak. Burroughs was successful in this attempt. Women's Day became a part of every African-American denomination and congregation.

Burroughs was adamant in her search for racial uplift. It was her position that hard work and manual labor meant self-worth. It was her womanist attitude that fought for the acknowledgement of the working poor. She felt that value and strong work ethic could improve racial turmoil. To confront the struggle of gaining justice, Burroughs advised black women to believe in their ability and power to change negative conditions. She believed that education and job training would give them power and opportunity to participate in the laws of society.

It was Burroughs goal to dismiss the notion that black women were lazy, to build confidence and self-esteem in the image of black women, enhance employment, and train them to realize God's will. She asserted her vision by building an institution that would model her vision for black women.

Burroughs first opportunity to realize her dream came from the support of the Foreign Mission Board of the National Baptist Convention when offered a job as a secretary. This opportunity enabled her to plan and become president of the National Trade and Professional School for Women and Girls in Washington D.C., in 1909. Her motto "We specialize in the wholly impossible."

Burroughs National Trade and Professional school was attended by daughters of working class African-Americans. During this time of social divide among African-Americans. Whereas African-American's were struggling for equal treatment in America, African-Americans were struggling with social status among themselves. Burroughs school educated women to become confident members of the working world by training them to become waitresses, secretaries, and business owners.

According to Sharon Harley, feminist and historian, Burroughs work remains undocumented in despite of her courageous contributions toward the advancement of African-American Women.

Rebecca Jackson was born in 1795 to a free family in Philadelphia. She was a visionary writer who was influential in incorporating the womanist philosophy in the church. Left to care for her siblings at a young age while her mother worked, a formal education was out of reach. Jackson learned early on the value of hard work. It was through her visionary guidance and religious faith that she was able to teach herself how to read and write.

Jackson became a preacher and active with the Shaker (the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing) movement. The Shakers were found by a small group in England in 1747 at a Quaker revival.

Their mission was equal rights for all people. It was their doctrine that God was both man and women. They enforced celibacy among its members and housed married couples separately in their commune.

The group was led by a women name Ann Lee, who later became known as Mother Ann by followers. Like Jackson, Ann Lee was illiterate and believed that God spoke to her through dreams. She believed that through those dreams she assumed mystic powers by God. Jackson's vision implied that it was a white male God and African-American-haired woman and the Holy Mother Wisdom present in her dreams that guided her feminist mission.

Jackson declared in her writings, "Oh, how I love thee, my mother. I did not know that I had a mother. She was with me, though I knew it not, but now I know her and she said I should do her work in this city, which is to make known the mother of the new creation of God. And none can come to God in the new birth but through Christ the Father and through Christ the Mother… and then I could also see how often I had been led, comforted, and counseled in time of trial by a tender mother and knowed it not."

Inspired by the Shaker movement, Jackson found and led a group in Philadelphia that included white members. Her belief in the doctrines of the Shakers drew controversy among the churches, however; it is noted that the community survived 40 years after her death in 1871. In her writings Jackson expressed, "I am only a pen in His hand." It was Jackson's belief that nothing was more powerful than this force, which defined her character and existence. She trusted that her faith would guide and protect her. It was through her writings that Jackson could manifest the sacred force she was given; the gift to be a visionary and in control of her destiny.

Jackson's level of devotion and salvation in life enabled her to develop leadership skills and challenge the male- dominated African-American churches. It was her dependence on her spiritual gift that gave her wisdom and courage to pursue her career as a religious leader.

In that she practiced abstinence, she believed it was her spiritual faith that allowed her to confront the shame directed towards her.

In her writings, Jackson describes how marriage was a conflict of interest with her calling. Though the relationships with her husband and brother were influential in shaping her career, she remained devoted to the power that transformed her life. She set a goal to educate and protect herself while realizing the realms of her vision.

The self-development of women and African-Americans in the Evangelical religion became difficult and changed America. In Jackson's writing "My Burden Rolled Off: The Religious Experience of a Free African-American," the Methodist women were deeply rooted with enthusiasm that spread out over the northeastern United States in the first four decades of the century. The Second Great Awakening gave women the opportunity, and a religious obligation, to gain experience in public speaking. Experiencing equality at a fundamental level in the religious realm, some would be led to demand it in the civic realm as well. Moreover, the conviction that human institutions, like human souls, could be reformed, even "perfected," by human effort under benevolent divine guidance was a prerequisite for the outburst of moral and social reform activity of the 1820s and 1830s.

In her writings "Gifts of Power," Jackson documents her spiritual journey. She describes her experiences and dreams relating to the 'gifts of power' obtained through prayer. Her dreams and spiritual powers enabled her to confront racial and sexual concerns and allowed her to confront relationships that she considered unhealthy towards realizing her vision.

Walker described this literature as "an extraordinary document," which "tells us much about the spirituality of human beings, especially of the interior spiritual resources of our mothers." Writing of Jackson's relationship to Perot, Walker coined the term "womanism" to distinguish a specifically black feminist cultural tradition that includes women's love for other women but is not "separatist."

Mary Virginia Cook was born a slave in Bowling Green Kentucky in 1862. With the support of her husband, William J. Simmons and three white women from the north, she was afforded an education. The opportunity to get an education eased the path for her to preach for the rights of women and justice for all.

Cook characterized as a sophisticated and intelligent black woman, mingled among the elite society in Kentucky. Though the struggle for black people continued during this period, Cook received admiration from African-American's and whites for her efforts towards achieving racial uplift. She was an advocate for education, a strong business women and a prominent member of the Baptist faith.

In 1892, she addressed the State Legislature. She joined forces with three other women to protest against the enactment of the Separate Coach Law

, also known as the Jim Crow law, which demanded separation of African-American and white passengers on trains.

After graduating from the university, Cook wrote articles for African-American publications, produced an anthology, and spoke for various organizations with the backing of the Baptist Women's Home Mission Society and the all-African-American National Baptist Convention. In 1893 she addressed the Educational Congress regarding the concerns and issues of African-American women. In 1895 she was appointed Commissioner of the State of Kentucky to the Women's Congress. She delivered a speech

Along with 20 men, she was a member of the executive board of the National Baptist Educational Convention. She served as editor of the women's column of the Louisville American Baptist. Cook was an active participant of the Women's Convention (WC) founded in 1900. WC was a chapter of the National Baptist Convention (NBC). Members of the convention nurtured the community with home visits, providing clothing for the needy, aiding seniors, organizing bible classes, and funding educational facilities.

Members of the WC valued Cook's ideas and contributions. In 1908, the WC elected her as treasurer of the group.

The WC remained an auxiliary of the NBC, which denied women voting rights. This created a dispute between the male-dominated NBC and the women in leadership with WC and National Training School. The struggle between the two religious groups was a result of sexism and other power issues that followed. An attempt by the NBC to take over the National Training school to the questioning of the NBC publishing house ownership. The arguments resulted in a lawsuit and the end of the NBC in 1915.