Anthropological Thought Durkheim, E. 1895.

¶ … Anthropological Thought

Durkheim, E. 1895. What is Social Fact? Rules of the Sociological Method. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Emile Durkheim proposed that the field of sociology was separate from the related sciences of anthropology and psychology. He established that certain types of thought are separate from the individual and reflect ability of the collective to influence the individual. This established a different set of motivations outside of the individual's own freewill and internal motivations.

The first concept that Durkheim establishes is that an individual can be influenced by forces that are outside of their own consciousness. These elements constitute a sense of "social" morality and reflects the position of the person outside of their own internal dialogue. Another concept proposed by Durkheim is that social phenomenon exists regardless of whether every member of a group has common experiences. It only takes a majority of the individuals within a group to constitute a social phenomenon, regardless of the decisions of individuals. The third major concept to Durkheim is that societies can be defined by their common characteristics, just as individuals can be defined by their differences.

Durkheim's work makes one think about the differences between who we are as individuals and who we are as a society. One seldom thinks about what defines society and how society differs from the individual. Durkheim is a basic work, that brings the sociologist back to the roots of society. It is an excellent reading if one wishes to be reminded of the very beginnings of society and social thought. For the anthropologist, it can inspire many hours of contemplation about society and where it began. When one listens to the media and hears about public opinion, Durkheim's work makes one consider what those words mean.

Article Summary #10

Weber, M. 1922. Economy and Society. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Unlike his contemporaries, Weber feels that status and party can cut across class membership. Weber felt that man did not seek economic power so that he could have riches, but because of the feeling that it creates. Social and economic order are different and fulfill a different need in humans.

The first concept that Weber introduces is the idea that class is different from the idea of community. A community may have many different classes of people. These people share a common set of circumstances. The second concept introduced by Weber is that class is tied closely to economic interest and the "market." A social class can take action to collectively raise the status of the entire class. The idea of class entails the expectation of a certain lifestyle. Often these class divisions are stratified geographically, such as referring to certain sections of town as "wealthy" and others as "poor."

The idea of "class" has received a considerable amount of media attention lately. It has been argued that in the United States, the middle class is disappearing and that the economic distance between the wealthy and the poor is widening. I do not know whether I agree or disagree with this statement. However, if one considers the analysis applied by Weber, one would have to take a holistic, rather than an individualistic approach to the topic. According to Weber, the achievement of the status of upper class appears to envelop a sense of honor and integrity. Recent scandals and news of the actions of CEOs lately, makes one wonder if this is still the case. Recent observations seem to indicate that the upper class has become a source of suspicion, rather than honor.

Article Summary #11

Boas, F. 1920. The Methods of Ethnology. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Boas introduced the concept that migration and dissemination were responsible for the development of culture. He deemphasized the importance of biological evolution. One of the most perplexing phenomenons among ethnographers is the development of parallel customs in cultures that are geographically separated. Boas centers on discovering the methods and conditions associated with societal change.

One of the key concepts that Boas introduces is that the history of any particular culture is not predestined by psychology, biology, or physical need. Otherwise, cultures would develop homogeneously. The second concept introduced by Boas is that societies go through cycles of stability and cycles of change. Boas introduces the function of migration in the dispersion and development of customs. As people migrated and came into contact with one another, they exchanged customs and ideas.

The most striking element of Boas' argument that applies to the times that we live in today is that about how society goes through periods of stability and periods of change. One only needs to watch CNN to know that our society is changing. Our values are changing. We are no longer willing to look the other way when the wealthy class uses their power corruptly. In addition, our society has become more safety conscious after the World Trade Tower bombings. We are now more willing to give up individual freedoms and tolerate a few more inconveniences for the sake of safety. In the past ten years, it would be easy to see that our society is not in a period of change. We will not be the one the other side of this economic turmoil as we are today. However, a period of stability after the strife is certain to come, according to Boas.

Article Summary #12

Radin, P. 1927. Right and Wrong. Primitive Man as Philosopher. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Radin examines the development of the concept of right and wrong in primitive cultures. His primary purpose is to demonstrate the amount to cultural bias present in Western Anthropology regarding passing judgments. Radin attempts to discover the roots of morality within the civilization. Radin relies heavily upon the morals of the Winnebago tribe to support his arguments.

The first concept introduced by Radin is that primitive tribes relied on a sense of self-discipline and self-control to maintain a sense of morality within the group. Among the Winnebago, many rules are observed for the benefit, or reduction of threat, to the one performing the action. Many of these actions are not performed for their own sake. The second concept introduced by Radin is that primitive people were guided by selfish motives, unlike today's society. Our reasons for altruism have changed. The third concept is that morality derives from the distribution of emotions to others in the community.

Radin feels that we no longer rely on selfish motives for altruistic actions. However, I disagree, to a certain degree. In our society, performing acts of altruism is regarded as an honorable act. When one receives a public reward or some type of recognition, it encourages altruism. It becomes an object of desire and the reward becomes a motivator. Even if no concrete reward is received, the person performing the altruistic behavior derives a sense of satisfaction and well-being from their sacrifice. They still receive a reward of some type for their actions. It is difficult to keep a set of volunteers who have a bad experience repeatedly. They was some sense of higher satisfaction or incentive to continue. I do not agree with Radin in that society has changed all that much in regards to selfish motives for altruistic acts.

Article Summary #13

Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Malinowski explores the economic exchange and rituals of the tribes of the Pacific islands. The Kula represents a unique economic system where the men that exchange goods do not keep them for very long, but pass them on to another as part of the exchange system. One of the most interesting aspects of the Kula is that it is not an exchange of items of need, but of items that are frivolous and of no use. The author uses the Kula as an example of economic enterprise carried out entirely for ceremonial purposes.

The key concept that the author conveys is how the ceremonial nature of the Kula compares with other forms of economy around the globe. The Kula is unique, as it is based on ceremony instead of need. One of the most remarkable aspects of the Kula is the complexity and trouble that it involves. The tribesmen must make long, dangerous ocean voyages to carry out the exchange. There is much haggling and bargaining that take place during the ceremony. Yet, it is all carried out for strictly ceremonial purposes. The author uses the Kula to serve as a comparison to modern economics.

One of the most interesting points of this article was that an economy developed, not out of need, but for social purposes alone. The Kula is a uniting factor for the tribesmen. Modern economics are carried out for an entirely selfish reason. The Kula provides a different perspective on the purpose and function of economics. One could imagine our ancient ancestors beginning trade as a social event. When we lived in small bands, every band was self-sufficient and had to supply their own basic needs. I had never thought of economics as a purely social function until reading this article. It changed my perspective on the purpose of economics.

Article Summary #14

Radcliffe-Brown, a. (1940. On Joking Relationships. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Joking and teasing is a cultural construct that has different rules among different cultures. The purpose of this article is to examine the purpose and function of joking relationships among African Tribes. The author discovered that joking relationships among in-laws helps to relieve tension and diffuse what could be volatile social relations. Joking is not random and has a specific cultural purpose.

One of the key concepts examined by the author is that joking relationships can help to classify relationships between these kinsmen. The author discovered that strict rules must be adhered to in order to keep the peace. The second key concept is that joking follows strict rules and represents a real form of communication among tribe members. These joking relationships are an important part of culture. The main point that the author tried to convey is that joking relationships represent an alliance between two people. This alliance can lead to an exchange of goods and services. Joking serves as a type of bonding among tribesmen. A Joking relationship differs from a contractual obligation and has a different social meaning.

In Western society, we tend to think of joking as a form of entertainment. The joke at someone's expense can be taken as an insult. It is seldom taken as a compliment. This difference in social function demonstrates that the same action can have different meanings among different cultures. This was an interesting point in that it makes one think outside of their own culture and treat the action objectively. Joking can be seen as a cultural exchange in both cultures, but in the African tribes, its meaning is almost opposite that assigned to it in Western cultures.

Article Summary #15

Benedict, R. (1930). Psychological Types in the cultures of the Southwest. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

The purpose of this article is to explain key differences between the Southwestern tribes of the United States and other Native American cultures. The article focuses on the lack of intoxication or vision as a means to achieve religious ecstasy. The author then delves into a discussion about the intoxicants and methods used by surrounding tribes. It dissolves into a discussion about various types of achieving religious experience in other cultures.

The first concept of the research is that the Southwestern tribes have a more highly developed set of ritual than other tribes. Almost every aspect of their lives is ritualized. The second key concept examines how the pueblo tribes differ from neighboring tribes in their lack of use in intoxicants for ritual purposes. This is contrasted to the Pima that exercise heavy use of intoxicants in their ceremony. The third key concept in the article is how the Pueblo people differ from their neighbors in other ways as well. For instance, the Mundugumor only allow women to fish, a task assigned to men in many tribes.

This research highlighted the differences in meaning that can be assigned to various activities according to culture. I found it interesting that the same activity or action can be viewed in an entirely different light, according to one's culture. It is easy to imagine how these differences could cause conflict when two different people came together. Globalization is making us more homogeneous and we are having to make compromises as to the interpretation of various cultural actions. It is important to remember that when we are in a cultural exchange, we must be careful not to allow our own interpretation of the events cloud the real meaning behind gestures and actions.

Article Summary #16

White, L. (1943). Energy and Evolution of Culture. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

White's purpose is to define what is meant by culture. In this article, culture is defined by behavior. This behavior is meant to fulfill two different types of needs. The first type of need is filled by drawing on one's inner emotions, such as singing, dancing and myth-making. The second type of need is fulfilled by drawing from the external world, such as clothing or food. White talks about man's culture in terms of energy flow through the system.

The first concept in the article goes into a lengthy discussion of the meaning of culture in relation to its fulfillment of human needs. The second concept discussed places culture in the context of energy flow and transfer within the system. According to this concept, the establishment of culture is based largely on the control of energy. White then goes into a lengthy discussion about the energy flow required in a hunter-gatherer society. Energy is only obtained from an animal or plant when it ceases to be such. Man derives his energy by taking that of another.

It is difficult to argue the primary concept of the White's paper from a theoretical standpoint. However, the extent to which the author relies on this energy exchange as the basis for society does so to the extent that it excludes almost all other factors. The author argues whether technology is a result of culture or whether culture develops because of technology. One of the key points that was missed by the author is that no reliable means was found to measure this energy expenditure.

Article Summary #17

Steward, J. (1955). The Patrilineal Band. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

The purpose of this article is to explore the development and purpose of the patrilineal band. The author proposes that this social structure resulted from an ecological need. The article also proposes that this social structure represents a level of sociocultural integration that is higher than the traditional Shoshoni family structure. The author surmises that patrilineal family structure developed from archaic times.

The first concept of the paper is that patrilineal bands are generally sparse, ranging over a very small area for food and sustenance. The second observation was that exogamy is required, as all of the women in the band are patrilineally related to the men. The concept and rules surrounding the development of Australian aborigines and the Ojibway developed from the concept of the patrilineal band and the need to bring in new genetic material. The third key concept that the author makes is that the patrilineal band and crossing rules within it are the extension of an innate biological need to diversify the genetic material within a group.

In this day of equality of the genders, it is difficult to remember that our society is still basically a male dominated society. As the band became less localized, it no longer needed the formal structure to make certain that in-breeding did not occur. Today, that is hardly a consideration. The necessity of the patrilineal band decreased as the size of the family structure grew. One of the key reasons for the shift in society from the patrilineal band to a more equal approach to society is that the necessity for the patrilineal band may have diminished as the population increased to the point where crossing within the group would seem unlikely.

Article Summary #18

Wolf, E. (1966). Peasantry and Its Problems. Peasants. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

The purpose of this article is to explore the purpose and place of the peasantry in the larger picture of the culture. In a primitive culture, the entire society must be involved in some form of communal agricultural activity. In the primitive culture, a more egalitarian approach to distribution of wealth is achieved. Class structure and a division between the wealthy class and the poor class is a sign of a developed society.

The first concept is that peasantry is the result of societal development and differentiation into class structure. The second concept is the in both primitive and advanced cultures, it is the peasantry that supplies the food for all classes. The peasantry produced the food. However, in an advanced society, the peasantry do not receive the highest reward for their efforts. The third concept is that the size and composition of the peasant family determines that ability to produce food for the community. Therefore, large families are needed to supply the needs of the peasant family and the community.