Biological weapons: history, mechanisms, and international policy

Biological Weapons: The 'Living' and Pervasive Weapons of Mass Destruction

The 'art' and methods of war have indeed gone a long way; from subsisting to crude metals and guns, human society has learned to manipulate Nature by using as one of its weapons of mass destruction organisms that create balance within the planet's ecosystem. Nuclear warheads, guns, and other artilleries and weaponry are no longer feasible arsenals of war, mainly because they are not energy- and economically-efficient, as biological weapons are. Biological weapons, is identified as a destructive medium which "consist of living, infectious microorganisms that are disseminated as aerosols through the atmosphere... are generally invisible, odorless, and tasteless" (Falkenrath, 1998). These characteristics of biological weapons make it a feasible medium for destruction, especially between warring nations/societies.

This paper traces the origins and history of biological weapons, especially in the United States. In knowing its history, this research also looks into the development of technology as one of the precursors that helped 'develop' and proliferate the creation of microorganisms that can destroy not only the human body, but the Earth's physical environment as well. Furthermore, the use of biological weapons as an alternative for weapons in the act of terrorism and as a means to destroy another nation or society is also studied and analyzed, thereby putting the production of biological weapons in its socio-political context. Classifications of biological weapons presently produced are also identified. Lastly, measures and policies formulated that aim to encourage and promote non-proliferation of biological weapons, a socio-political issue, is also tackled, providing tentative solutions to the increased use of biological weapons, thereby increasing the probability of its adverse effects to plague human society and the physical environment for years to come.

The origin and history of biological weapons can be traced as far back as the 14th century, where plague epidemics become biological weapons used by conquerors in order to easily overpower other nations/societies. In American history, biological weapons use is evident in the use of the smallpox disease as a way for the French and British forces to defeat the Native Americans, original inhabitants of the U.S. territory, in the 18th century (Lederberg, 1999:18-9). Biological weaponry has become more developed in the 20th century, during the First World War, when Germany used "wind-blown chlorine" as a weapon to physically weaken the enemy's army forces. Germany's use of chlorine later developed to phosgene to mustard gas, attacking the skin and lungs of its victims, proving itself to be a pervasive form of biological weapon, since gas masks proved to be "ineffective" protection to this biological weapon (Falkenrath, 1998).

After WWI, United States has become actively involved with the production of microorganisms that can be used as biological weapons. In 1942, U.S. launched an offensive biological program, producing cultured varieties of "numerous bacterial pathogens, toxins, and fungal plant pathogens that could be directed against crops to induce crop failure and famine... weapons for covert use utilizing cobra venom, saxitoxin, and other toxins... developed for use by the CIA..." (Lederberg, 1999:25). Although U.S. is now a staunch supporter of the non-proliferation programs on biological weapons, its production of microorganisms that has deadly effects on the human body and physical environment served as the catalyst for other nations to escalate production of biological weapons. In the race for political dominance and power, biological weapons served as a symbol of power and influence, where governments and leaderships' influence are gauged.

Classification of these biological weapons can be identified into three: skin-damaging agents, toxins, and nerve agents. Skin-damaging agents are chemical compounds that prove to be not only skin-damaging, but has effects that include, among others, "eye damage at low levels, pulmonary injury, systemic illness." A popular example of skin-damaging agents is the mustard gas, so-called because of the mustard-like smell that it emits. Initially used by the Germans, and later by the Allies, in World War I, mustard gas is hard to detect, and can produce physical disabilities for "short and long periods," as well as psychological ailments, which include "exhaustion, chronic anxiety, and poor morale," and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Augerson, 2000:51-2).

Toxins, on the other hand, are "natural poisons naturally produced by living organisms such as "bacteria, fungi, dinoflagellates, algae, plants, and animals (corals, snails, frogs, arachnids, and snakes)" (53). Originally used by India and China in 14th century, toxins have become integrated among the growing number of biological weapons, induced by artilleries during World Wars I and II, and were used, allegedly, in the Iran-Iraq War. Toxins are harder to detect than skin-damaging agents, and may be induced in an individual through "skin intoxication," making toxic poisoning undetectable and more pervasive. Examples of toxins used as biological weapons are the following: (1) Ricin, also known as Agent W, is often produced in crystalline form, and proliferated through "high-explosive bomb and shells," and has toxicity equivalent to that of a nerve agent; and (2) aflatoxins, used for its stability and capability to "show delayed acute toxicity... because most require metabolic activation" (84).

Lastly, nerve agents, initially used for the production of insecticides, proved to be lethal biological weapons, because it has the ability to easily "incapacitate" its victims or infected individuals. Nerve agents' pervasiveness includes "[l]iquid contamination of soils, clothing, and material could provide a secondary vapor hazard for variable periods. Artillery shells... could deliver these agents effectively..." (102). The most commonly used toxins by countries is sarin, adopted because of its increased "persistence and penetration."

Of course, at present, various forms of biological weapons exist, including the recently-reported Anthrax virus. Anthrax becomes lethal when inhaled, gradually killing the infected individual with easily-determined symptoms. Apart from Anthrax, Ricin and smallpox are also being introduced as potential biological weapons. New forms of weapons, on the other hand, include botulism, which produces a toxic bacteria called botulinum; clostridium perfringens, bacteria that proliferates in warm temperatures, and can cause poisoning; gas gangrene, which causes "shock, jaundice, and death,"; and camelpox, a new form of disease allegedly developed by Iraq. "Farm diseases," such as the mad cow disease, African swine fever, and soybean rust are also considered potential biological weapons easily proliferated from one living organism to another (ABC News, 2001).

There is an increasing production of these weapons because of the changing socio-political landscape of the societies and nations in the world today. According to Falkenrath, Newman, and Thayer (1998), the increasing supply of biological weapons is due to the increasing demand of societies experiencing political and civil strife. These conflicts are caused due to the following social and political changes: (1) the prevalence and rapid occurrence of religious violence; (2) political conflict between U.S. And Persian Gulf countries, where the former has been increasing its presence and political influence on Arab nations; (3) increased right-wing violence within United States; (4) rise of "amateur" terrorism; and (5) large-scale ethnic and religious conflict caused by cultural differences among people within a society (182-201).