Road traffic emissions and air quality in Jakarta, Indonesia

¶ … prosperity in the developing nations of Asia such as Indonesia is exacting a toll on the health of people and the environment through increased vehicular travel and concomitant increases in harmful emissions. This aim of this case study is to estimate and to quantify road traffic emissions and determine how they could have a bearing on the transportation sector in Jakarta, Indonesia. To carry out this research, it is proposed that it must follow three main steps. Firstly, to analyse the current data about characteristics of transportation such us traffic volume, average speed and proportion of vehicles in the main streets of Jakarta. Secondly, to examine these parameters within a particular air pollution model to determine the impact of the pollution this has occurred. Finally, based on the data provided, the third step is aimed at establishing any instantaneous scenario and some recommendations which could be under taken by Jakarta city government to reduce air pollution.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

Purpose of Study

Importance of Study

Overview of Study

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Chapter 3: Methodology

Description of the Study Approach

Data-gathering Method and Database of Study

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Chapter 5: Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendation for Further Research

Estimation of Road Traffic Emissions in Jakarta, Indonesia and Development of Strategies for Reducing Emissions

Chapter 1: Introduction

Urban air quality has become an increasingly important issue facing some so-called megacities in Southeast Asia, including Manila, Bangkok and Jakarta. The improvement of technology and population growth increases the number of motor vehicles and industrial estates in urban areas. Motor vehicles and industrial activity, which produces exhaust gases, is a pollutant that causes a decrease in air quality. An imperfect combustion of fuels used as energy sources for motor vehicles is introduced into the air in the form of gases and particles. Motor vehicle exhaust pollutant release (pollutants) take in the form of gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and Hydrocarbons (HC) and the form such of as dust particles, aerosols and lead. Air contaminated by these pollutants can cause disruption in the lives of humans, animals and plants.

Air pollution represents a major health hazard in a growing number of regions of the world; however, polluted air is especially problematic in some developing nations where regulations governing air quality have traditionally been lax or nonexistent (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). At present, the international healthcare community attributes a wide range of healthcare problems to suspended particulate matter, with the most damaging among being air pollutants (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). Indeed, Bolt and Dasgupta emphasize that, "Ambient concentrations of particulates in many cities of the developing world routinely exceed the World Health Organization safety standard by a factor of three or more" (2001, p. 37). These are not insignificant numbers because they translate directly into adverse healthcare outcomes in developing nations where access to healthcare services may be limited (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2009). In fact, the World Health Organization estimates that more than three million people die from the harmful effects of air pollution each year, a rate that is fully three times the number of deaths from automobile accidents each year (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2009). According to Fischlowitz-Roberts (2009), "A study published in the Lancet in 2000 concluded that air pollution in France, Austria, and Switzerland is responsible for more than 40,000 deaths annually in those three countries alone. About half of these deaths can be traced to air pollution from vehicle emissions" (2009, p. 33).

Vehicle emissions are notoriously difficult to monitor over time since their sources change, but what is known is that particulate air pollution is a combination of small and large particles that have different origins and chemical compositions (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). In recent years, the focus of health research concerning air pollution has shifted from all particles to small particles that are less than 10 microns in diameter ([PM.sub.10]) and, most recently, to particles with diameters that are less than 2.5 microns ([PM.sub.2.5]) (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). This shift is based on the preponderance of vehicular emissions that are the source of interest. In this regard, Bolt and Dasgupta report that, "Large particles usually contain dust and smoke from industrial processes, construction, agriculture, and road traffic, as well as plant pollen and other natural sources. Smaller particles generally originate from combustion of fossil fuels. These particles include soot from vehicle exhaust, which is often coated with chemical contaminants or metals, and fine sulfate and nitrate aerosols that form when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions condense in the atmosphere" (p. 38).

At present, the most significant sources of fine particles continue to be power plants that are coal-fired and internal combustion-driven motor vehicles (Bolt & Dasgupta, 2001). Although larger particulates would appear to be intuitively more troublesome, it is the smaller particles that are of specific interest to healthcare providers because of their ability to harm human beings when they are encountered in the environment. In this regard, Bolt and Dasgupta note that, "Small particles are more dangerous because they can penetrate deep into the lungs, settling in areas where natural clearance mechanisms, like coughing, cannot remove them. The constituent elements in small particles also tend to be more chemically active and therefore more damaging" (2001, p. 38).

The epidemiological studies to date concerning exposure to particulates, especially small particulates, have identified a significant correlation between small particulate matter, respiratory illness and death. In fact, Bolt and Dasgupta report that:

For urban residents in Latin America, some estimates suggest that particulates cause 65 million days of illness each year. A 1996 study finds that particulate pollution has inflicted serious health damage on the 4.8 million inhabitants of Santiago, Chile, a city with particularly poor air quality. Other research indicates that air pollution in Jakarta, Indonesia, is responsible for some 1,400 deaths, 49,000 emergency-room visits, and 600,000 asthma attacks per year. Health effects of exposure to particulates range in severity from coughing and bronchitis to heart disease and lung cancer. (2001, p. 38)

Jakarta as the capital city of Indonesia has encountered the same pollutions problems as other large cities. The most significant cause of air pollution in Jakarta was produced by motor vehicles which accounted for approximately 70% of emissions. This correlates directly with the ratio between the number of motor vehicles, the number of population and land area of Jakarta. Based on data from the Police Commission of Indonesia, the number of registered motor vehicles in Jakarta, in June 2009 was 9,993,867 vehicles, while the population of Jakarta in March 2009 was 8,513,385 inhabitants.

Comparison of these data showed that the number of motor vehicles in Jakarta is more than the population. Growth in the number of vehicles in Jakarta is larger than population. Growth in the number of vehicles in Jakarta is also very high, reaching 10.9% per year. These numbers are very significant because of the availability of road infrastructure in Jakarta has not complied with ideal level of provision. The length of roads in Jakarta is only about 7650 kilometres with an area of 40.1 square kilometres, or only 6.26% of the total area. In fact, the ideal ratio between the area of road infrastructure and is 14%. As these conditions worsened congestion and air pollution increased rapidly (World Bank survey, 2004). According to the World Bank, the social costs of exposure to airborne dust and lead in Jakarta approached 10% of average incomes in the early 1990s (Fischlowitz-Roberts, 2003).

Moreover, although the disadvantages of automobile and truck-based transportation systems are well documented and include air pollution, suburban sprawl and traffic gridlock which are endemic to emerging countries, the overwhelming "combination of the need and the desire to drive automobiles has become so great that some cities such as Jakarta have restricting bicycle use in favor of cars and motorcycles. Jakarta even tossed 20,000 bicycle rickshaws into Jakarta Bay in the 1980s to rid the city of a 'backward technology'" (Pedal power, 2008, p. 19). In sum, Jakarta is faced with some profound challenges as it seeks to overcome the adverse effects of rapid economic growth while balancing the need to ensure that current investments in transportation infrastructure are used to their maximum advantage, and these issues are discussed further below as they relate to the problem of interest to this study.

Statement of the Problem

Studies by the World Bank indicate that air pollution in Jakarta is responsible for 1,000 to 2,000 deaths a year in each city; 25,000 to 100,000 cases of sickness requiring doctor's visits or hospitalization; and millions to hundreds of millions of "restricted activity" and "respiratory symptom" days (Brandon, 2009). Transportation issues, though, are very complex because they involve a wide range of social, economic and cultural issues and there remains a great deal of inconsistency between land use plan and transportation planning (Brandon, 2009). In addition, the growth in traffic in developing nations such as Indonesia has created traffic congestion problems that causes significantly lengthier travel times on major highways and the supporting grid. Because transportation infrastructure and services are important components of the urban system, they need to be sustainable and contribute to economic growth rather than harm the people that rely on them for their livelihoods. According to Asri and Hidayat (2005), "The expansion of social and economic activities has resulted in rising pollution and environmental degradation following the economic crisis in Jakarta Metropolitan area where environmental regulations were largely disregarded" (p. 1792). Taken together, these issues represent a growing public health threat that requires informed solutions, and these issues are discussed further below at they relate to the aims and objectives of the study.

Aims and Objectives

This research has an aim and several objectives. The aim of this research is to find out how the pollution levels occurred in several main roads in Jakarta and explore some strategies to reduce carbon pollution levels by using some schemes and scenarios. These scenarios must strive to accordance with policy, which has been undertaken by the Jakarta city government.

The objectives to be achieved by quantifying the traffic conditions related to air pollution level are:

1. The analysis of the current emission level on the main roads in Greater Jakarta.

2. The analysis of the factors that affect the air pollution on the main roads.

3. The development of "what if" scenarios to be constructed with current pollution level in Greater Jakarta for reduction of emissions.

4. To identify feasible alternatives and recommendations to reduce the air pollution level in Greater Jakarta.

Importance of Study

The importance of this study relates to both the contribution that vehicular emission are making to diminished air quality as well as the growth in demand for fossil fuels in emerging nations such as Indonesia. For instance, according to Li (2009), "Increased prosperity in the developing nations of Asia is taking a toll on the health of the people and the environment. This economic boom, however, comes at a cost, as sharply increased consumption of energy and resources have produced a major surge in pollution and inflicted significant damages on the Asian people and their environment" (p. 55). Moreover, although air pollution is a regionalized problems, it also has transnational aspects. In this regard, Li emphasizes that, "Sulfur emissions from coal combustion are transported across national boundaries. Transnational air pollution also creates international political tension as concern grows over acid deposition in the oceans and in neighboring countries" (2009, p. 55).

Structure of the Study

The research consisted of five chapters which are: introduction, literature review, methodology, result and analysis, and conclusion. The first chapter is introduction which tells about background of the study, aim and objectives, and structures oh the research. The second chapter is literature review which tells about the relationship between transportation with emissions, the case study, the previous study, the standards, forecasting procedures, transport handling facilities, and data presenting. The third chapter is methodology which tells about data collection, analysis method and methodology flow chart. The fourth chapter is result and analysis which presents the result of scenario to reduce emission on the main roads and the analysis. The last chapter is conclusion which tells about conclusion the research, limitation of the study, and recommendation for further research.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

The Case Study

This case study is originally adopted from the air pollutions modelling and monitoring system which is compulsorily undertaken in every city in the UK. However, this study focuses on estimating the emissions that occur by taking sample measurements in the main roads of Greater Jakarta, Indonesia. The study will be focused on estimating carbon emissions and implementing some scenarios, which are can reduce emissions on the main roads.

Estimation of emissions will count with the equation in Equation 2.1 the relation between Emissions with Traffic Volume

Q = n x FE x K

Which are:

Q is total emissions in g/hour.km n is number of vehicle in units/hour

FE is factor emissions in (g/litre)

K is fuel consumption in litres / 100 km

Number of vehicle will take from the Local Department of Transportation. Number of vehicle must represent the fact. So, the data should be a reliable thing. Factor emissions should look in Table 2.1 . K value concerning fuel consumption should look in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1 Emissions Factor for any kind of Vehicles

No.

Kind of Vehicle

Emissions Factor (FE) -- g/litre

NOx

NMVOC

CO

N2O

CO2

1

Passenger car

- premium

21,35

0,71

53,38

462,63

0,04

2597,86

- solar

11,86

0,08

2,77

11,86

0,16

2924,90

2

Light vehicle

- premium

24,91

0,71

49,82

295,37

0,04

2597,86

- solar

15,81

0,04

3,95

15,81

0,16

2924,90

3

Heavy vehicle

- premium

32,03

0,71

28,47

281,14

0,04

2597,86

- solar

39,53

0,24

7,91

35,57

0,12

2924,90

4

Motorcycle

7,12

3,56

85,41

427,05

0,04

2597,86

Source: IPPC (1996) in Jinca et al. (2009)

Table 2.1 is shown emissions factor based on the previous research at 1996. The table is used in the Equation 2.1. Table 2.2 is shown factor of energy consuming for any kind of vehicles. The table is used the Equation 2.1. Therefore, both of them had much kind of vehicles, researcher will take a highest value each kind of vehicles.

Table 2.2 Energy Consuming for any kind of Vehicles

No.

Kind of Vehicle

Fuel Consuming

(liters/100 km)

1

Passenger car

- premium

11,79

- solar

11,36

2

Heavy bus

- premium

23,15

- solar

16,89

3

Medium bus

13,04

4

Light bus

- premium

11,35

- solar

11,83

5

Bemo, Bajaj

10,99

6

Taxi

- premium

10,88

- solar

6,25

7

Heavy Truck

15,82

8

Medium Truck

15,15

9

Light Truk

8,11

- premium

8,11

- solar

10,64

10

Motorcycle

2,66

Source: BPPT in Jinca et al. (2009)

The Previous Study

Novianti et al., (2009) wrote the result of their research called "the influence of factor emissions characteristics in Transport -- Included nitrogen dioxide (NOx), emissions load estimation, case study: Karees Aeera, Bandung." Emission inventory can be used as a tool to make policy decision including air pollution problem. Transportation sector has become the greatest pollutant source in urban area. The objective of this research is to compare emission load estimation using various emission factor databases with different characteristics. This research focused only on Nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollutant. The choice of pollutant is based on the reasons that it is the primary pollutant emitted from vehicle exhaust; the impacts on human health and the environment are well documented. First, transportation survey was conducted to get vehicles activity data such as volume with 7 vehicles classification and vehicles average speed. The survey was conducted at weekday and weekend condition. Then, Indonesia, UK, and India factor emission database was chosen for determining emission load. Based on the transportation survey conducted and emission load calculation, it was known that the busiest road was Jalan Jakarta and was known to emit the highest emission load. England emission factor database deemed to be probably the best emission factor because emission factor database which is more detail and is incompliance with needs and site conditions, of course, will give a better emission load value.

Mitchell et al. (unknown) wrote the result of their research called "the impact of road price and other strategic road transport initiatives on urban air quality." The UK National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) recognizes road transport as a principal source of urban atmospheric pollution; hence an objective of the 1999 Transport White Paper was to reduce air pollution through better management of urban road traffic. Whilst there are numerous policy options available for managing urban traffic their air quality implications at the city scale are largely unknown. This research presents preliminary results from the application of a chain of dynamic simulation models of traffic flow (SATURN, SATTAX), pollutant emission (ROADFAC) and dispersion (ADMS-Urban), integrated within a geographic information system model (TEMMS) to assess the impact of alternative transport scenarios on air quality for the city of Leeds, UK.

The scenarios addressed include "business as usual" traffic growth to 2015; network development; road pricing with cordon charging; road pricing with distance charging; and the wider adoption of clean fuel vehicle technology. The impact of these developments on air quality (nitrogen dioxide, particulates and sulphur dioxide), including exceedances of air quality standards is identified.

Finally, differences in the spatial distribution of air quality (as NO2) between scenarios are highlighted, in light of their significance to social equity concerns. Emission Standards on the Road.

Greater Jakarta had several regulations about emissions, which are:

1. Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 41-year 1999 concerning Air Pollution Control.

2. Local Government Regulation of DKI Jakarta Number 2-year 2005 concerning Air Pollution Control.

3. Ministry of Environment Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 12-year 2010 concerning Application of Air Pollution Control at the Local State.

The last regulation had any indicators to measure emission level. The indicators are:

particulate matter (PM), trioxygen (O3), nitrogen dioxide (No2), sulphur dioxide (So2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and Pb. The indicators based on 3 standards which are:

1. The WHO Air Quality Guideline.

2. National Ambient Air Quality Standards -- USEPA.

4. BMUA (baku mutu udara ambient) Nasional - Government Regulation of Republic of Indonesia Number 41-year 1999 concerning Air Pollution Control.

Greater Jakarta does not have BMUA (Baku Mutu Udara Ambient) so Greater Jakarta follows BMUA Nasional which is release by Ministry of Environmental Republic of Indonesia. Table 2.3 is shown the value of emissions indicators based on observation duration.

Table 2.3 Value of Emissions Indicators

No.

Indicators

Duration

Value

Units

WHO

USEPA

BMUA

1

Particular Matter (PM)2,5

24 hours

25

35

65

ug/Nm3

1-year

10

15

15

ug/Nm3

2

Particular Matter (PM)10

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours

50

ug/Nm3

1-year

20

ug/Nm3

3

Trioxgen (O3)

1-hour ug/Nm3

8 hours ug/Nm3

1-year

50

ug/Nm3

4

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours ug/Nm3

1-year

40

ug/Nm3

5

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

10 minutes ug/Nm3

1-hour ug/Nm3

24 hours

20

ug/Nm3

1-year

80

60

ug/Nm3

6

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

1-hour

40000

30000

ug/Nm3

8 hours

10000

ug/Nm3

24 hours

10000

ug/Nm3

7

Pb

24 hours

2

ug/Nm3

4 months

1.5

ug/Nm3

1-year

1

ug/Nm3

Source: Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup (2010)

The standards will be the objectives which are the indicators to know deficiency level between the fact (existing condition) with condition after treatment (with scenarios).

Transportation

Emissions reduction can start with transport handling, especially solve to congestion in Greater Jakarta. Transportation sector had many subsectors which are:

1. Transport facilities

2. Traffic movement

3. Transport operations and management

Transport facilities tell about facilities on the road which is regulating the traffic movement on the road. The congestion makes the emissions level high. So, the good planning of transport facilities will reduce the congestion level. Reduction of the congestion level will reduce the emissions level.

The traffic movement can change the mapping of emissions level on the main road. but, this research does not change the traffic movement because the change of traffic movement needs data of trip generation and data of trip distribution. This research does not have any data of trip generation and data of trip distribution. So, researcher cannot change the traffic movement.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The research will be following this flow chart. The flow chart is a guidance to make this research step-by-step. The first step is data collecting. Data collecting is a process will be collecting the data. The second step is analysis. Analysis is a process will be analyzing about the existing conditions. The third step is a process to compare between standard/objective with the existing conditions. The result of analysis is the emissions level on the main roads. If the result has a deficiency between the standards or objectives, the process will be next to the fourth. If the result has not a deficiency between the standards or objectives, the process will be next to the fifth.

Figure 3.1 Flow Chart

The fourth is a process to make several scenarios which are the scenarios will reduce emissions level on the main roads in Greater Jakarta. After that, the process will be next to the second. So, the second until the fourth are a cycles of procedures which are the cycles run to get the optimize solution of the possible solutions. The fifth step is conclusion or recommendation. All of steps are shown in Figure 3.1 above.

Data Collection

The data required for the research consisted of the following:

1. Name of main roads in Greater Jakarta.

2. Traffic volume on the main roads.

3. Networking map of the main roads.

4. Management or operations system of the main roads.

Local Department of Transportation had traffic volume on the main roads, at least at 30 main roads in Greater Jakarta. So, the researcher assumed that the main roads are the case study in the research. The data based on primary survey which are held on 2009 and 2010. The data of traffic volume counted every 15 minutes for 3 hours at the morning peak time and at the afternoon peak time. The data of traffic volume counted every direction at 30 main roads. The vehicles are separated by 4 kinds, which are: high vehicle (HV), light vehicle (LV), motor cycle (MC), and unmotorized (UM) vehicle.

The researcher spent 1 hour peak time a day at every main road as shown in Table __ and __ below and depicted graphically in Figures __ and __ in Chapter 4 below. This approach is congruent with a previous study of Jakarta traffic emissions by Srikandi Novianti and dan Driejana wherein the researchers used a vehicle volume survey by "counting every vehicle that passes observation point at a road segment accord with given classification on the survey form. Vehicle classification divided into 7 types such as motorcycles, passenger cars, public passenger cars, standard buses, small buses, light duty trucks, and heavy duty trucks" (p. 3).

Networking map of the main roads will combine between the data from the local department with GIS Data. So, researcher can present where the main roads with the attribute. The attribute is the emissions level.

Analyzing

Researcher has the equation which is the relation between the data of traffic volume with emissions level. The equation is a tool to convert from the data of traffic volume to the emissions level. This step is a simpler than the previous step. In this step, researcher just uses the equation from the reliable literature. The data of traffic volume follow the theory of equilibrium. So, the data of emissions level must follow the one.

Standards or Objectives

This step is a process to compare between the result with the standards or the objectives so researcher can give several possible solutions. if, the data are shown a high deficiency with the standards, researcher must decide objectives in order to researcher can find several possible solutions. The possible solutions will create in the fourth step which is scenarios and analyze in the second step which is Analyzing.

Scenarios

This step, researcher decides any scenarios which are reduce the emissions level. The scenarios do not disturb the flow equilibrium or the traffic equilibrium. So, the scenarios will tell about land use and transport handling and facilities.

Conclusions or Recommendations

The last is conclusions or recommendations. Researcher finds several conclusions and creates several recommendations to reduce emissions level on the main roads in Greater Jakarta. Recommendations depend on conclusion of the research and the conclusions depend on the analyzing and standards or objectives. So, conclusions are the exact possible solutions.

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Using the methodology described in Chapter 3 above, the results of the 1 peak hour observations and categorizations of vehicular traffic for the main roads of interest to this study are presented in Tables __ and __ and depicted graphically in Figure __ below.

Table

Results of a.M. Readings

Time of Survey

High Vehicle

Light Vehicle

Motorcycle

Unmotorized

Total

Chapter 5: Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendation for Further Research

Conclusion

As noted in the introductory chapter, the aim of this case study was to estimate and to quantify road traffic emissions and determine how they could have a bearing on the transportation sector in Jakarta, Indonesia. To carry out this research, it was proposed that it must follow three main steps. Firstly, to analyse the current data about characteristics of transportation such us traffic volume, average speed and proportion of vehicles in the main streets of Jakarta. Secondly, to examine these parameters within a particular air pollution model to determine the impact of the pollution this has occurred. Finally, based on the data provided, the third step was aimed at establishing any instantaneous scenario and some recommendations which could be under taken by Jakarta city government to reduce air pollution. Based on the foregoing overarching aim, the specific objectives of this study were to quantify the traffic conditions related to air pollution level, including the following which are reiterated and answered in sum below:

1. The analysis of the current emission level on the main roads in Greater Jakarta. The analysis of the data recorded for the intersection of interest to this study showed that during the morning hours, there were 858 high vehicles, 12,868 light vehicles, 29,167 motorcycles and 12 unmotorized conveyances recorded. The data recorded for the intersection of interest to this study showed that during afternoon hours, the pattern was much the same.

2. The analysis of the factors that affect the air pollution on the main roads showed that the major sources of air pollution in Jakarta are factories, automobiles, households, ships, and aircraft.

3. Sources of air pollution are not restricted to vehicular emissions in the greater Jakarta metropolitan area, but these emissions do represent the major source.

4. The development of "what if" scenarios to be constructed with current pollution level in Greater Jakarta for reduction of emissions. It can be concluded that there is a clear cost-benefit analysis concerning the relative contributions emissions by light passenger, heavy trucks and motorcycles along the main traffic corridors of Jakarta today. On the one hand, light vehicle population in main roads in Jakarta and low average vehicle speed caused by traffic jams, particularly at peak hour morning and afternoon contribute significant emission levels. On the other hand, though, there are high emission loads caused by high motorcycles and trucks volume on these roads during these same periods. While motorcycles have a low emission factor, their high emission levels result in higher emission loads.

5. To identify feasible alternatives and recommendations to reduce the air pollution level in Greater Jakarta. This study estimated the emissions that occur by taking sample measurements in the main roads of Greater Jakarta, Indonesia. The study focused on estimating carbon emissions and implementing some scenarios that can reduce emissions on the main roads. The economic costs of air pollution argue for reducing income taxes and raising taxes on fossil fuels. This action would encourage more efficient fuel use, a shift to clean energy sources, and the adoption of pollution controls. The alternative is to spend more on health insurance to treat air pollution -- related ailments. Raising the costs of polluting fuels will reduce suffering and premature death.

Limitation of the Study

The major limitation of this study concerned the snapshot measures that were taken of the major roads of interest. Long-term measures would provide more accurate levels.

Recommendation for Further Research

Two major issues emerged from the research that warrant further research as follows:

1. There is a need for more detailed vehicle activity data and proper emission data to identify compliance problems; and,

2. There is a need to reassess the viability of bicycles as a means of transportation in the Jakarta area.