Hispanic American Learners Using Additive Bilingualism to Address Subtractive Educational Challenge

Using Additive Bilingualism to Address Subtractive Educational Challenge among Hispanic-American Learners

Introduction

Latin Americans’ largest color population will account for about half of student growth over the next decade. Latin Americans are also the least educated of any ethnic group (Nuñez, Ramalho & Cuero, 2010). Promoting the success of Latino Americans and other colored students is a major concern of educational systems that serve more diverse student organizations and become increasingly accountable to external institutions. Conversely, the population of teachers does not reflect this demography, as the majority of teachers/lecturers in American learning institutions are white. This divergence means that most teachers are unaware of their students’ daily experiences such as cultural background, dialect, family, home, and community. Because teachers tend to draw educational examples from their own experiences, these connections are not made for students.

Moreover, Hispanics in the United States have historically suffered from ridicule and abuse from mainstream cultures due to non-standard Spanish and English and codeswitching (switching between two or more languages ??or language types). In education, code-switching and the use of substandard English and native languages ??among students with low socioeconomic status (SES) of linguistic minorities, including Latino Americans, are widely recognized as deficiencies that need to be addressed (Alfaro & Bartolomé, 2017). Therefore, it would help mainstream school teachers develop ideological clarifications that allow them to question their lacking views on new low-SES bilinguals and the non-standard languages ??they bring into the classroom. This paper, therefore, is a contribution to that endeavor, as it seeks to establish a practical teaching pedagogy to remedy the damage that has so far been done to the Hispanic population that has gone through the American schooling system. In particular, this paper discusses the use of additive bilingualism to address subtractive education challenges to Hispanic-American learners.

Description of the challenge

English as a Second Language (ESL) students in the US, especially Hispanic students, are considered language deficient. This is a result of the fact that our nation’s language policy does not support the development of learners, and by extension, citizens, who are biliteracy (Ochoa & Cadiero-Kaplan, 2004). Bilingualism is the development of academic skills in the primary language while pursuing the development of the English language and academic skills, leading to academic fluency in the primary languages ??(L1) and second (L2). As a result, students can listen, speak, read, and write fluently in at least two languages. Still, instead of promoting biliteracy, most schools and programs try to equate students with an English-only curriculum without regard to perception, developing students whose primary language is not English (Ochoa & Cadiero-Kaplan, 2004).

According to Valenzuela (1999), there are three major themes in Subtracting Schooling: caring, subtractive schooling, and social capital. Care in education is primarily related to student-teacher relationships, attitudes, goals, expectations, and priorities. The second topic is the subtractive teaching of Hispanic-American students. Instead of allocating resources to students, schools divert resources from Hispanic-American learners. When teachers explicitly refuse to build and maintain genuine two-way relationships with their students, they essentially reject Hispanic culture. In addition, subtractive schooling education tends to be essentially assimilative in that it attempts to remove or eliminate traces of Hispanic culture and language from the learner. The third topic of subtractive learning is social capital. Social capital is based on social exchange theory and is defined by its function in a group structure. Valenzuela (1999) views academic success as a collective process focusing on gender, U.S.-born groups, mixed-generational groups, and Mexican immigrants. Just as is typical of the Latino community, young Hispanic Americans value their social networks and take great honor in their language and culture.

Review of the literature

Language and culture

Language and culture are inextricably linked. Language is the culture in practice and its manifests in various forms and conditions. Cultures and communities are complex living systems, and thus, culture is full of systematic variants. Sociolinguistics is the field that examines the relationship between language and society and is founded on interdisciplinary features and nuances without being bound by any particular theoretical method (Spolsky, 1998). Language is associated with nationality, and all patterns and variations of a language can be described as dialects, styles, or registers.

The choice for any specific style or register is determined by several factors, which include place. Role-relationship between speaker and listener, and the topic. In addition, the choice of style will vary based on accommodation, solidarity, and gender (Spolsky, 1998). Accommodation can occur when the language choice is adjusted to suit someone outside the community or when a person wants their language to resemble the language. The register and language diversity chosen will help others determine which role/relationship predominates at a particular point in time. Second, language can be used to establish a local identity and establish a social identity, as in the case of slang. Unlike other language types, slang refuses to use formal Rule to allow experimentation, cross-pollination, and reinvention to keep it “fresh.” Slang can be used to show solidarity or group membership. It is commonly used among young people and deprived people. Slang is interesting because it embodies the desire to build solidarity locally and domestically and internationally, and is a social force that has a significant impact on language. Third, language is a reflection, record, and conveyance of social differences (Spolsky, 1998, 36), sometimes with precision, sometimes with less precision, as in the case of gender. This brings about such concerns as, who speaks more between men and women, men talk vs. women talk, and generic masculine.

Teaching culture

Some language teachers and program managers think that culture can be considered a “plus” in teaching macro abilities because the speaker’s linguistic decisions are based on what is appropriate. In contrast, some consider culture to be a core element of teaching in the classroom, as long as the linguistic choices made by the speaker are not determined based on a particular context that is culturally bound. As stated by Moran (2001), language is a window to culture. In other words, individuals need a language to operate cultural products and successfully participate in cultural practices. They then need to know how a particular culture works to use a foreign language properly.

Language is a means of explaining or expressing culture. Seelye (1984) stated that it is becoming increasingly clear that the study of language and the study of culture cannot be separated and vice versa. This can be achieved if the language administrator develops a classroom activity that encourages learners to go beyond the facts and speak for and experience deeper levels of language-speaking culture. Similarly, as Seelye (1984) explains: Knowledge of linguistic structure alone does not provide any special understanding of a people’s politics, social setup, religion, or economic systems. As a result, inadvertent entry into the world of language education and learning, regardless of its essential connection to culture, may prevent language learners from understanding and experiencing the main characteristics of the language (González, 2018).

Culture in teaching language

Culture plays a crucial role in education and, in particular, learning languages. For ESL students, their culture forms the foundation, and thus, teachers need to consider their cultural background. According to Sheets (2005), teachers need to create safe, educational conditions to interact with others. This can enrich the student’s learning experience by encouraging students to form their cultural identity while at the same time building bonds and relationships with fellow learners and teachers. Sheets argues that culture is the raw material for reasoning because “reasoning skills: ability to apply knowledge from personal cultural practices, language and ethic experiences to gain command of one’s thinking” (2005. p. 146).

Culture manifests itself in the classroom through; social interactions, classroom management, and interpersonal relationships. Social interactions entail the public and shared contact between the various stakeholders within the classroom environment. These interactions allow for the sharing of resources, exchanging through and ideas, and boosting the development of a sense of belonging and security (Sheets, 2005). Interpersonal relationships have a role in the development of reciprocity between students. These relations are a familiar social association that leads to support, trust, companionship, longevity, and intimacy. It also promotes the development and maintenance of good emotional health (Sheets, 2005). Lastly, classroom management revolves around the setting and environment within the classroom. According to Sheets (2005), teachers have the primary role in developing and establishing the right environment within the classroom. Towards this end, Teachers need to consider the impact of a given “rule of activity” on the learner. Learners need to have the opportunity to experience different social attitudes. Teachers need to involve students in the decision-making process to get student approval for classroom schedules and procedures. This helps develop student guides in a variety of environments. Teachers need to encourage students to be exactly as they are in the classroom and enable cultural performance. The classroom structure needs to foster friendships and allow mutual acceptance among peers to build a community.

Outcomes of learning culture

Learning outcomes are related to the specific purpose of the course program. In other words, a language function or task that a learner is expected to acquire at the end of a class, unit, or course (González, 2018). For language program managers and teachers who want learners to direct their cultural learning outcomes, consider the following explanation of cultural learning outcomes proposed by Moran (2001). The following table summarizes the outcomes of seven cultural learnings.

Table 1: Culture learning outcomes, adopted from Moran (2001)

Understanding of specific culture

Students can establish acceptance and empathy for people and their lifestyle for a particular culture.

Understanding of the general culture

Students get to understand their culture better, then use this understanding to compare and contrast with other culture

Competency

· Proficiency of language

· Effective communication

· Ability to manipulate cultural products

· Competency in intercultural interactions

· The ability for intercultural communication

Adaptation

The learner can fit in, adjust accordingly, live, and work within the host culture (Moran, 2001, p.113), and it manifest in various modes;

· Separation – retention of original culture and avoidance of target culture

· Assimilation – loss of aspects of original culture and creation of relationships with the target culture

· Integration – maintenance of original culture while simultaneously interacting with the target culture

· Marginalization – lack of interest in developing ties with either target of the original culture.

Social change

Students become the change agents after understanding other cultures

Identity

The learner acquires an enhanced sense of self

Personal competency

The student develops self-confidence, self-esteem, acceptance of errors, openness, and seeing others based on their potentials (Moran, 2001, p.118)

Using Additive Bilingualism

Additive bilingualism is the idea of adding a second language without supplanting or dislodging the primary language or culture. Interestingly, subtractive bilingualism is when somebody learns the second language to the detriment of the first. In numerous ways and numerous Language classrooms across America, a subtractive climate has been created for Hispanic-Americans (Enstice, 2017). The general public celebrates and considers the development of bilinguals “successful” if and when they learn English. Ordinarily, most language administrators don’t understand that they are caring out subtractive bilingualism and consider that they are doing a good job for the bilingual learners. Notwithstanding, and given the discussion in this paper, the following are a couple of methods by which an adoration and acknowledgment of learners’ language and cultural identity can be cultivated through additive bilingualism.

Teaching methods

i. Culture responsive teaching

Students’ everyday concerns, such as crucial family and community issues, are included in the curriculum through culturally responsive teaching. Teachers create learning exercises based on well-known themes to aid literacy and content acquisition and assist Hispanic students to feel more at ease and confident in their work (Padrón, Waxman & Rivera, 2002). This teaching method increases the learning and retention of new knowledge while also developing students’ self-confidence and self-esteem by working from and reinforcing students’ existing knowledge base. Culturally responsive teaching makes new subject matter and everyday teachings meaningful for Hispanic students whose experiences and everyday living may differ from those encountered in the school environment. This emphasizes and connects both social and academic responsibilities, which helps Hispanic students prepare for significant social roles in their community and the greater society.

ii. Corporative learning

Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups to complete tasks and activities. Each student has a defined role to play. Students develop sophisticated understandings through having opportunities to discuss and defend their ideas with others. This teaching method is student-centered and fosters interdependence between students and teachers (Padrón et al., 2002). Collaborative learning is suitable for all students but essential for Hispanic students who may face socioeconomic disadvantages. Collaborative learning activities have the following impacts on Hispanic students;

· Provide opportunities for students to communicate with each other

· Develop social, academic, and communication skills

· reduce anxiety, increase self-confidence and self-esteem through individual contributions and achievement of group goals

· Improve individual and group relationships by learning to clarify, support, and question the ideas of others

· Improve your English by providing students with a rich linguistic experience incorporating speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

· Teach the skills needed to function in real-life situations, such as using context as a meaning, seeking help from others, and comparing nonverbal and linguistic cues (Padrón et al., 2002).

iii. Institutionally oriented conversations

The instructional conversation is a long dialogue between the teacher and students about instructive topics relevant to the pupils. Students initiate it to improve their linguistic and complicated thinking skills and assist them through their learning processes. Instructional discussions promote discourse with teachers and classmates, rather than limiting expectations for Hispanic students by avoiding debate during instruction (Padrón et al., 2002). Hispanic students may lack complete command of the English language, making it difficult to participate in classroom conversations. One of the key advantages of employing instructional discussions with Hispanic students studying English is that they allow students to engage in extended discourse, a key second language learning concept.

iv. Instruction that is cognitive-guided

Learning practices that improve students’ metacognitive development are emphasized in cognitively directed instruction. It centers on the direct modeling and teaching of cognitive learning processes and provides an opportunity for students to put them into practice. Students learn how to monitor their learning by using numerous ways to speed their acquisition of English or academic information through explicit instruction (Padrón et al., 2002). This educational technique is advantageous to Hispanic children struggling in school because they can learn how to employ cognitive strategies successfully to overcome some of the individual barriers to academic success.