Bilingualism and English language learning in young children

Bilingualism including learning English as a second language in young children

Bilingualism in young children

The issue of bilingualism and particularly the problematics and advantages of learning more than one language is one which has been hotly debated in academic circles. What becomes clear from the literature is that there are many positive reasons for teaching children more than one language at an early age. As one linguist noted, these advantages include the following

Young children can pick up a new language faster and more easily than a teenager or an adult, although some experts suggest this difference can be attributed to the level of exposure rather than the age of the child.

A second language is a skill that allows a child to explore other cultures, and communicate with more people -- at home and abroad.

The ability to speak more than one language can create broader opportunities for employment in the future. (Two languages spoken here)

However, there are also a number of negative sentiments expressed about learning a second language. These include the view that bilingual children are more prone to experience language disorders and to have difficulty with syntax. This view however is often discounted by experts.

Another theory that is also refuted by many linguists and educationists is the view that bilingual children have trouble communicating in both languages (Two languages spoken here). These views, as well as many positive views about bilingualism will be explored in this paper. The context that will also be taken into account in the paper is the issue of bilingualism in relation to English as second language.

Bilingualism

The term bilingualism is commonly defined as follows:

The term bilingual refers to individuals who can function in more than one language. The category of bilinguals is very broad - encompassing individuals who are sophisticated speakers, readers, and writers of two or more languages, as well as those who use a limited knowledge of a second language (L2) for purposes such as work or schooling, and who may be literate in only one language (or even completely illiterate). (Bilingualism, Second Language Learning, and English as a Second Language)

The definition of bilingualism included a number of factors that are commonly accepted. These are firstly that bilingual children are able to comprehend and produce linguistic aspects of two languages (Garcia, 1986, p. 96). Secondly, that they are exposed "…'naturally' to the two systems of languages as they are used in the form of social interaction during early childhood "( Garcia, 1986, p. 96).

There are many different types and forms of bilingualism. There are also many countries in the world where bilingualism is an intrinsic part of the culture and social makeup of the country. For example, countries like Canada where French and English are both official languages. Another bilingual country is Saudi Arabia, where most of the population speaks both Arabic and English (Bilingualism, Second Language Learning, and English as a Second Language).

In many cases bilingualism is related to second language or L2 learning, in that the second language is learned after, or in conjunction with, the first language (Bilingualism, Second Language Learning, and English as a Second Language). What is clear from the literature is that, "Individuals can become bilingual at any age…" (Bilingualism, Second Language Learning, and English as a Second Language). In other words, young children can easily become bilingual and, in fact, studies have shown that children are amazingly adept at becoming bilingual.

For some children bilingualism is a natural process as they grow up in a cultural environment where both languages are spoken in the home. On the other hand, and in other instances, " Children growing up with parents who speak a minority language (within the larger societal context) may also be natively bilingual, if visitors, neighbors, television, regular caretakers, and other sources make the majority language available" (Bilingualism, Second Language Learning, and English as a Second Language).

Bilingualism and Second Language Learning

Studies have found that it is possible to teach even very young children to be bilingual. "In Europe, a great many toddlers learn four languages with little or no difficulty" (Can my new baby learn two or more languages at home?). As one study notes, there

…appears to be a 'window' of learning language that 'opens' at about the age of ten months… It is clear that they will begin to imitate the 'noises' they hear, and when there is a reaction from their caregivers, they begin to associate meanings with the sounds. (Can my new baby learn two or more languages at home?)

In the first few years of life the infant is able to acquire language at an exponential rate and they normally acquire basic syntax and sentence structure by the age of three. Motivation plays a very important part in the development of language and especially in the acquisition of a second language. This is usually facilitated by talking with parents or caregivers and by motivation from their peers and those outside the home. As noted, second language acquisition is greatly dependent on social and cultural factors and the environment in which the child plays and lives. This aspect will be dealt with in the following sections.

False Myths about Bilingual Children

One central myth that has been exposed as false by modern research is the view that somehow bilingualism results in language disorders later in the child's development. The fear that bilingualism early on in the child's development negatively affects language and cognitive ability has "… long been a concern for parents and educators" (Bialystok, 2008). Therefore, in the first half of the twentieth century, the prevailing view was that bilingualism and second-language acquisition early in life "…made children confused and interfered with their ability to develop normal cognitive functions" (Bialystok, 2008). However, these ideas were changed considerably with later research by, among others, Peal and Lambert in their work, The relation of bilingualism to intelligence (1962).

The view that young children will not be able to cope with learning more than one language is also discounted by research findings. In this regard one critic notes that;

Despite being faced with two different vocabularies and sets of grammar, babies pick up both languages at the same speeds as those who learn just one. Far from becoming confused, it seems that babies actually develop superior mental skills from being raised in a bilingual environment. (Yong)

This new trajectory in the theoretical understanding of bilingualism reversed previous negative ideas about the effects of early bilingualism. Peal and Lambert, for example, "…showed a general superiority of bilinguals over monolinguals in a wide range of intelligence tests and aspects of school achievement" (Bialystok, 2008). Recent research in this area has led to a more balanced approach which has assessed the areas in which bilingual children excel, as well as those areas in which they do not do well.

The negative view of the effects of early bilingualism was often based on the fact that children might use words from each of the two languages in the same sentence. However, experts have dispelled this myth and have stated that, "From time to time, children might use a word from one language while speaking in another. But these moments of 'language switching' disappear after a few years, usually by age five" (Two languages spoken here).

Another myth is that it is not possible for the child to learn more than one language at a time. This has also been shown to be incorrect in reality. Linguist's state that that this is in fact quite possible and occurs frequently. It has been ascertained that the central elements in acquiring two language at the same time are essentially exposure and practice; basically, "The more children hear and use a language, the faster they will learn it" (Two languages spoken here).

There is also the misconception that learning two languages at the same time will adversely impact reading and writing skills in each language as the child develops. This has been shown to not necessarily be the case and some linguists emphasize that the very opposite is in face true. In other words, "…learning to read in one language helps a child learn to read in another" (Two languages spoken here). This is an important aspect of bilingual learning among children and leads to other assertions about the positive cognitive and developmental aspects of bilingualism.

Social Factors

According to experts in the field, the main requirements for using two languages at a very early age are that the child has some reason or motivation to learn the language and that there is "…reinforcement of some kind for these languages, preferably outside the home." (Can my new baby learn two or more languages at home?). For example, playing outside the home with other language children can increase the motivation to learn the other language. The issue of social and cultural reinforcement and motivation to learn a second language is complex and must take into account a wide variety of socio-cultural variables.

This can be seen with regard to the issue of codeswitching in bilingual children. As Scheu (1999) states, the effects of culture and context are extremely important in bilingualism. This refers to language choice as well as observed linguistic phenomena such as codeswitching. Codeswitching refers to when "…bilinguals code-switch or mix their languages during communication" (Heredia and Brown). Scheu ( 1999) finds "…codeswitching as a significant feature of bilinguals' speech repertoire and it offers strong evidence of the interdependence of bilingualism and biculturalism" (Scheu 2000, p.131).

The importance of cultural contact in bilingualism is underscored in a study by Barbara Pearson ( 2007). The study explores key cultural factors that affect whether a child in a multilingual environment will become bilingual. The factors that were found to be influential in the choice of bilingualism were language status, access to literacy, family language use, and community support, including schooling ( Pearson, 2007, p.399). Peason argues that "… the quantity of input has the greatest effect on whether a minority language will be learned, but language status and attitudes about language also play a role. When families are proactive and provide daily activities for children in the minority language, the children respond by learning it "( Pearson, 2007,p. 399).

Positive Aspects of Bilingualism

Besides the obvious advantages of being able to communicate in a second language, there are many other positive aspects that relate to the child's development. As noted above, studies indicate that in many instances bilingual children show a certain superiority over monolinguals in various intelligence tests as well as in tests of school achievement.

This view is supported by research that examines the link or the connection between cognition and bilingualism.

The interactive theoretical model proposed by Cummins ( 1981) states that "…children who achieve "balanced proficiency" in two languages are advantaged cognitively in comparison with monolingual children" ( Garcia, 1986, p. 96). However, this theoretical model also states that "…children who do not achieve balanced proficiency in two languages (but who are immersed in a bilingual environment) are cognitively disadvantaged in comparison to mono-lingual and balanced-proficient bilinguals " ( Garcia, 1986, p. 96). In other words, being immersed in a bilingual environment is by itself no guarantee that the child will achieve more advanced cognitive skills. The proficiency in both languages needs to be equal and balanced for positive results.

However, what is of significance in terms of the way that the bilingual child is perceived is that, from a theoretical perspective, the older negative evaluation of bilingualism in young children has been radically questioned. As Garcia (1986) emphasizes,

This formulation presents most directly the shift away from viewing bilinguals as cognitively disadvantaged & #8230; to considering them as cognitively advantaged-while at the same time continuing to consider the potential negative influence of nonbalanced bilingualism. ( Garcia, 1986, p. 96)

There are many other studies that suggest that bilingualism in fact assists the child in developing attention skills sooner than monolingual children. For example, there is the view that bilingualism enables children to develop various attention skills much earlier on in their development (Two languages spoken here). This refers in part to the theory of 'selective attention'. Selective attention is the ability to "…focus on important details while ignoring distracting and misleading information" (Two languages spoken here). It is suggested that in the process of learning two languages bilingual children in become more proficient in terms of selective attention in that "….they learn to filter out words from one language when speaking in another" (Two languages spoken here).

This positive assessment of the value of bilingualism also extends to other areas of language production. Studies claim that the myth that bilingual children take longer to learn a language is countered by research, which shows that "… they pick up their dual tongues at the same pace as monolingual children attain theirs, despite having to cope with two sets of grammar and vocabulary" (Yong, 2009). There is also the finding in some studies that bilingual children tend to be more " flexible learners" than their monolingual peers (Yong, 2009). This also has implications in terms of learning skills and the advantages that the bilingual child may have in later learning where flexibility in processing data may be needed. As Yong (2009) states; "Their exposure to two languages at an early point in their lives trains them to extract patterns from multiple sources of information" (Yong, 2009).

An interesting study by Agnes Melinda Kovacs and Jacques Mehler ( 2009), noted in Yong ( 2009), finds that children raised in bilingual homes tend to have more advanced " executive functions" (Yong, 2009). The term 'executive functions' refers to; & #8230;a number of higher mental abilities that allow us to control more basic ones, like attention and motor skills, in order to achieve a goal" (Yong, 2009). This set of mental abilities, which according to many theorists is fostered by bilingualism, are considered to be important aspects of future intellectual and social development. Yong described them as follows: "They help us to plan for the future, focus our attention, and block out instinctive behaviours that would get in the way. Think of them as a form of mental control" (Yong, 2009). Furthermore, quoting the research of Kovacs and Mehler (2009), Yong states that

…even from a very young age, before they can actually speak, children develop stronger executive functions if they grow up to the sound of two mother tongues. They show a degree of mental control that most people their age would struggle to match. (Yong, 2009).

An intriguing aspect of modern research in this regard is the findings in neuroscience that suggests that there may be a difference in the brains of bilinguals when compared to monolinguals. This research suggests that"…early bilinguals may have different access to executive function compared to monolinguals" ( Childhood Bilingualism: Current Status and Future Directions). However, the researchers also insist that a great deal of caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these results. Nevertheless, this research opens the possibility of further exploration of the link between cognition and bilingualism.

Problems and issues

As has been briefly referred to, the re-assessment of the value of bilingualism among young children has meant that a more positive view has been taken of developmental and cognitive issues. However, linguists and educators are also aware of areas which are problematic in terms of child growth and development among bilinguals, which have to be taken into account and weighed up against the more positive findings.

There are also results, for example, that show certain shortcoming in the development of bilingual children. One is the view that "… for general language proficiency, bilingual children tend to have a smaller vocabulary in each language than monolingual children in their language" (Bialystok, 2008). However, this is offset by the concomitant finding that bilingual children generally tend to have a better and wider comprehension of linguistic structure in language than children who have learned a single language. This is referred to in the literature as metalinguistic awareness (Bialystok, 2008).

Another issue that is central to this discussion refers to the types of languages that are learned. There are languages that are dissimilar, or similar, in their basic structure and this has an impact on the child's cognitive and developmental processes. This refers, for instance to languages that are similar in terms of their writing system, for example French and English; and languages that are dissimilar in this regard, such as English and Chinese. The child who learns two languages which are similar in their writing systems will show greater progress in their reading skills. However, bilingual children learning languages with very different writing systems will generally not show the same degree of reading skill development. Bialystok (2008) summarizes this point as follows.

Specifically, children learning to read in two languages that share a writing system (e.g. English and French) show accelerated progress in learning to read; children whose two languages are written in different systems (e.g. English and Chinese) show no special advantage, but neither do they demonstrate any deficit relative to monolinguals. (Bialystok, 2008)

The last point that Bialystok makes is also important to note as it suggests that even learning languages with different writing systems does not seem to retard the oversell progress of the learning in comparison to monolingualism. This is also a central point that relates strongly to the issue of the learning of English as a second language. In other words, in order to ascertain the value and desirability of learning English and another language, one should in terms of these findings consider it in relation to the type and structure of the first language that is being learned.

Other challenges and issues noted in the literature include the following. Studies note that the bilingual children tend to have as smaller vocabulary in each language than their monolingual peers. However, this is ascribed to the fact that they "…need to learn new words in both languages, instead of just one. That doesn't mean they know fewer words" (Two languages spoken here). Other areas of concern are that bilingual children tend to speak later than their peers and the issue of mixing language among bilingual children has also been a topic of debate. However, experts state that this aspect is eliminated when the child has built up a large enough vocabulary (Bosemark).