How to Manage Conflicts in Organizations

Conflicts are natural. They are expected to arise in any interaction involving two or more individuals. No two people think, act or react in a similar manner. This variability offers the opportunity for a conflict to arise in any situation. Without conflict, life in organizations would be stagnant. The future of the organization would be jeopardized. Dissonance, or a need to find a better way of doing things, is often the seed, which spurs on the team to higher levels of investigation and searches. The origin of conflict can be often traced to false perception. (Burton, 1968) In an organization conflict can play an important role in offering the workers and the management direction and purpose in spite of the difference of opinions between workers.

Through this paper, I hope to gain an insight to the various conditions that can cause conflicts between individuals in organizations. My personal experience in the past has been in the area of sales. As a manager, I was often faced with dealing with conflicts that arose under my watch. I was often called upon to arbiter or resolve the conflict, with the expectance of fairness and balance. I have since moved from the corporate setting to an academic setting where I teach courses in the engineering. In addition, I also coach the basketball team in the school. In my new work setting, often, the main drivers for conflict are very different from those of my previous sales job. I realize that my current work environment is also very conducive to creating its own type of conflicts that are just as significant those in corporate settings.

With this in mind, I decided to understand the classifications of conflicts and the necessary means to reduce the negative impact of conflicts on the morale of the individuals involved in the conflict. As stated earlier I coach the basketball team and often situations arise where the players on the team might want to do certain things their way. In this situation, conflicts often arise in team as a result of a few members of the team refusing to give up control and expecting the entire team to follow their way of thinking. (Rahim, 2001) If not handled effectively, this conflict can result in a team dysfunction. Such team fragmentation would defeat the goal and mission of the team -- winning games. Understanding the options that are available to me therefore is paramount and critical for handling the conflicts that could arise.

Literature review

Types of conflict is defined as "a disagreement regarding interests or ideas. Whether it is within oneself, between two people, or within an organization, it has a negative connotation." (Esquivel & Kleiner, 1997) Conflicts in organization, in the past, have always been considered as unwanted and unattractive. Organizations encouraged conformity for their workers. Teams and groups increasingly view the creator of the conflict as a troublemaker and prefer not to ostracize this individual.

All conflicts are not the same. There are two different types of conflict identified: Emotional and Cognitive. The first, "Emotional conflict" is personal, defensive and resentful. Also known as "A-type conflict" or "affective conflict," and is rooted in anger, personal friction, personality clashes, ego and tension. The second on is "Cognitive conflict " and is largely depersonalized; also know as "C-type conflict," consist of argumentation about the merits of ideas, plans and projects. At an interpersonal level there might be two reasons why conflicts originate. The first can be attributed to group identity. This conflict arises when individuals have personalities and behavior patterns that do not synchronize well and are abrasive to each other. In the second case, the conflicts arise not from the individual's personality but rather from the group or team that he or she associates with.

The type of conflict that is created often determines the how the conflict ought to be managed. People have a positive concept and image of self. Attitudes are value-laden statements -- favorable or unfavorable -- about objects, people, situations or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something. Conflicts often arise when the attitudes of two or more people do not mesh and individuals cannot "get past these feelings." Emotional factors can become distorted and can even overshadow an individual's reasoning. The situation can become more of a win-lose competition issue. Disputing members will not be willing to arrive at a compromise. Perceptions are generally a reactionary process. Individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Often, perceptions can introduce "a feeling" of how things should be around an individual. When the conflict situation is resolved in a win-win manner, there will be less negative aspects that affect the decision no matter how the conflict is resolved. In a no-win situation, every positive aspects of an alternative not chosen will become apparent while the negative aspects of the solution chosen will only make the situation of conflict worse.

Conflicts in teams

Conflicts in teams can be generally classified into three types: relationship conflicts, task conflicts and process conflicts. Each of these conflicts can have different impacts on teams within an organization. (Van Slyke, 1999) Emotions and personal feeling can distort and overshadow the purpose or agenda of the team making task execution and completion difficult. This situation might devolve into a very dysfunctional team environment.

Impact of gender and status on conflict management

Gender also impacts conflict management style. Largely, men do not shy away from conflicts. Women typically will avoid a conflict-based situation. Rahim and Bonoma's (1979) conceptualization of conflict management styles for interpersonal conflicts differentiates the styles on two basic dimensions -- concern for self and concern for others. "The first dimension explains the degree (high or low) to which a person attempts to satisfy their own concerns, while the second dimension explains the degree to which an individual tries to satisfy the needs or concerns of others." (Brewer, Mitchell, & Weber, 2002) Based on these two dimensions, five specific styles of conflict management have been identified -- integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising.

In the integrating style, there is a high concern for self and for others. Avoidance is characterized by low concern for self and others. The other three classifications lie somewhere between. The obliging style displays low concern for self and high concern for others, while in the dominating style there is low concern for others and high concern for self. In the compromising style, the concern for self and others is equally balanced. Research indicates that individuals select different types of conflict management styles based on the situation being faced and the conflict styles of the other individuals involved in the conflict. (Blitman, 2002)

Many researchers are of the opinion that conflict management styles are not related to the biological sex of the individual, but rather to the role that the individual might play as a result of the environment and the circumstance. For example, some studies indicate that women have a more cooperative orientation to conflict management when compared to men, but other research studies suggest that women are more competitive than men and the cooperative conflict management style might not be displayed in all situations. The developing of traits forced by gender can also impact the conflict management styles. For example men have traditionally been viewed as the breadwinner and guardian of the family and as a result developing aggressive, independent and assertive behavior was normal. On the other hand, women were viewed as homemakers. As a result, women were encouraged to develop complementing characteristic for the male such as sensitivity, cooperativeness and emotional attachments.

It is often observed that many of the conventional management traits of aggressive, competitive and risk taking are similar to those developed by males. Women competing in the corporate world therefore often display these traits nullifying the biological sex trait development. Therefore "to date, a major weakness in much of the research examining sex differences in conflict management style has been the apparent assumption that biological sex is equivalent to gender role." (Brewer, Mitchell, & Weber, 2002)

An individual status in any organizational structure is more an indicative of the type of conflict management style that would be used. For example, people at lower levels in an organization tend to use the avoiding conflict management styles while higher status individuals tend to use dominating conflict management styles in their interactions. A new employee consequently, will display different conflict management styles when compared to a long time employee. In many situations, conflict management styles for an individual will change based on the "other party" involved in the conflict. A new employee at a higher level might display more dominating conflict management styles when compared to an old employee at a lower level of the organization. Hierarchical structures of any environment therefore, have the ability to determine the styles of conflict management used.

Impact of culture and personality on conflict management

Communism and Socialist regimes were based on the concept that if all are treated equally there will be no conflict and unrest in society -- this theory however was not very successful, as it did not address the motivation issue of individuals. Understanding that humans by nature are competitive, and Darwin's theory that only the fittest survive, is important. To manage and understand any dissonance at its basic level is important. Minimizing any attempts at trying to eliminate the factors that cause dissonance can delay the conflict but will never completely eliminate the problem. In a work environment, making a decision that is more inclusive and tolerant of dissonance feelings can help reduce conflicts but never completely eliminate them. Dissonance is often not tolerated in all societies. Many of the Asian societies view it as a break down of the system. Conformity is expected without justification.

Culture, upbringing, society in which an individual grows and lives in all have the ability of influencing culture or culture tolerance. Conflict tolerance is often determined by how individuals view policy, evaluate decisions and relate to others in the society. (Dunlop, 2003) Studies in state-related affected mood and conflict also indicate the link between positive mood and the use of cooperative behavior when managing conflict. (Rhoades, Arnold, & Jay, 2001) Simply put, an individual displaying a positive mood (emotions, feelings, etc.) is more likely to use a trial and error problem solving method and consequently will use the cooperative style of conflict management when dealing with conflicts of personal or work related nature. Therefore a person who displays negative moods will have a tendency to display a non-cooperative style of conflict management based on the conditions creating the conflict. Organizational conflicts might also arise as the result of social diversity within the organization. (Schneider & Northcraft, 1999) The Social identity theory suggests that individuals in organizations are more likely to use social categories for selecting new employees or promoting and valuing existing employees. This behavior can result in creating organizational conflict that might span different levels and departments within an organization.

Dissonance and conflicts

It seems natural and logical for a team member to search for examples that "fit" or "conform" to his or her beliefs than to search for examples that would disprove him. They realize every time that there is a conflict; that they have to resolve it, and that they will therefore attempt to align initial their beliefs with those that have similar beliefs. Dissonance caused by a lack of social support can be reduced if team members are willing to at least listen and evaluate the opinions of the individual. If the individual "afflicted" by dissonance is able to convince the other team members to change their opinions he/she will be motivated. Occupational or job stress is a perceived imbalance between occupational demands and the individual's ability to perform when the consequences of failure are significant (Murphy, 1995) When the imbalance becomes unmanageable and chronic, conflicts generally arise in the organization.

Greater emphasis was placed on conforming to acceptable standard and rules than to the workers actual skill and potential in at the work place. Competitiveness and profit seeking tend to create a society of insecure individuals. While competitiveness, quest for a better way of life and the dream of more wealth has helped America stay at the top of most of the research and development now being carried out in the world, it has also made the society more stressed and less interactive. While dissonance is needed the focus of dissonance should not be against the final goal or mission for which the team has been created. Rather the dissonance or conflict that arises should be focused on improvements of the process or seeking alternate plans of actions that can help improve the product or service being created. Once the team agrees to pursue a goal, however, the members of the team may all have their own ways of conducting the necessary requirements.

Excessive dissonance at the stage where the team has to perform their individual tasks will just delay the process.

Requirements of the individual managing conflicts in an organization

It is often hoped that conflicts between individuals in a work/play setting do not arise. Individuals who manage conflict effectively are often more likely to achieve the both the personal and organizational desired goal and objective. (Gross & Guerrero, 2000) Interpersonal communication and willingness to see another point-of-view often help individuals become more productive and valuable to society and the company over time. By maintaining positive relationships and encouraging trust and cooperation from other members in the team and group an individual might be better able to achieve the mission. Studies indicate that people who are better at conflict resolution are also happier about their jobs and personal lives. Overall, an individual will be perceived as more apt and valuable to a job or position if he or she displays better conflict management styles.

Many companies are also using simulated computerized models to determine the scope and extent of conflicts and the management styles that can be the most appropriate for a given situation. (Jameson, 1999) Conflicts can as a result of a wide variety of situations that exist within an organization. Successful managers are generally those who are able to deal with the wide rage of behavior patterns that can spawn organizational conflict. By managing conflicts at the initial stages decision makers in organizations and groups can avoid costly lawsuits and legal penalties.

Decision-making and leadership styles in the team also have the ability to influence and manage conflicts. Team leaders who use transformational rather than the transactional form of leadership tend to create fewer conditions for conflicts to arise. In addition the inclusion of team members in the decision-making process and the seeking out of ideas and opinions from team members can also help the team scope out the best option available to them for any given situation. Allowing everyone in the team to provide their input at every stages of the task implementation is important.

Team members' opinion and behavior might also be the result of past experiences and conflicts with other individuals in the team. Past experiences of mutually acceptable agreements might help members navigate new conflict situations in a more rational and process focused manner. However, if past interactions were negative or with a power struggle existed conflict management in new situations would be more difficult to manage for the team members and the leader. While affirming that putting aside past grievances and misunderstandings no matter what the issues is important, in reality, human tendencies often do not allow for forgiving and forgetting.

Discussion and Recommendations

This study while focusing on the issue of conflicts as a whole places emphasis on conflict management in my current work environment. Conflict management and resolution is very important. As the individuals who create the conflicts that I have to monitor are students. These individuals are young and very impressionable and any method of conflict handling should not scar them for the rest of their lives. At the same time, offering sound ideas for managing differences to the students can also offer them ideas of the options that they might have for the future when faced with similar situations. Every individual is not created the same. As a result my team members and students can learn early on that life in general can become easier if they can understand how to get along with others while at the same time not losing their individuality.

Discussion

The opportunities for conflicts to arise in an educational setting are enormous. Conflicts could arise between teachers vying for classroom/practice time for the students under their tutelage. Furthermore, selecting curriculum and teaching methods that do not mesh with the school's traditional styles can be a problem. Grading and evaluating students and often passing some who do not meet the grade is often cause for concern. These are but some of the conflict situations that could arise in the course of an instructors interaction with the school. Matters get only more complicated when the teacher has conflict issues with the management as well as the student body on many of the issues.

Believing that conflicts will just go away is a wrong style of managing the conflict. At the same time, employing a dominating style of conflict management will only worsen the situation being faced. In this environment, how the teacher handles the conflict is also an ethical issue as they are considered role models for the students under their care. Some conflict management strategies might work very well in the corporate world but might be the wrong method with impressionable and immature student audiences. Teachers are also often the authority on many of the conflict issues that can arise between students and being an arbitrator and counselor for the conflicts that arise are also a part of any teacher's job. Being fair is important; also important, in this situation, is encouraging students to reach their own resolution thereby helping to instill conflict management styles that could help them in their future. Teachers also might experience conflicts between peers and the management and the effect of these conflicts might impact the students. For example, two teachers (coach and assistant coach) disagreeing with respect to the training for the basketball team can affect the performance of the team especially if they are forced to take sides in the argument.