Close analysis of gender dynamics in male-centered worlds

¶ … Men

"in the World of Men": The Practicality of the Way

In religion or philosophy, there are certain teachings and concepts that can be confusing. They are difficult to understand because they are abstract ideas defined with abstract language. Concepts of Taoism, or the Way, are no different. Through parables told in dialogues featuring the character of Confucius, Chuang Tsu presents real-world scenarios followers of the Way can relate to. Earlier sections of Chuang Tsu's Inner Chapters detail philosophical ideas regarding a reliance upon spiritual virtues. "In the World of Men," however, clarifies concepts that may seem impractical or confusing and make them immediately relatable to life's circumstances through several parables. Metaphors, direct comparisons, and aphorisms illustrate and define how one can practice a central principal -- becoming reliant upon the spirit, not the mind.

The passage from "In the World of Men" (58-61) features parables concerning Yen Hui and Tzu-kao. Parables are a useful technique for instruction because they are entertaining and simple to comprehend. Both parables are constructed similarly and feature the character of Confucius. Chuang Tsu uses Confucius because the historical Confucius is viewed as a great teacher of the Way. With Confucius as a reputable mouthpiece, Chuang Tsu's own ideas about following the Way gain more respectability. The men approach Confucius with a dilemma, referencing their practice of the Way and how it is influencing their decision. When they're done speaking, Confucius gives a detailed response. While their conflicts differ, through Confucius Chuang Tsu offers advice illuminating the following concept:

'…don't listen with your mind, but listen with your spirit. Listening stops with the ears, the mind stops with recognition, but spirit is empty and waits on all things. The Way gathers in emptiness alone. Emptiness is the fasting of the mind.' (58)

Confucius says this in response to Yen Hui, as Yen Hui contemplates journeying to Wei to confront and enlighten a young ruler whose authority has brought great peril to his people. Listening with the spirit instead of the mind is Chuang Tsu's philosophy of the Way. One cannot rely upon the knowledge one has acquired in life because circumstances will arise bringing unknowns and uncertainties. As Confucius says, "the mind stops with recognition.'" Trying to rely upon this knowledge brings inner conflict and confusion. The spirit, however, is empty because it doesn't have any preconceived ideas or notions. Following the spirit's lead gives one the flexibility to respond to a myriad of situations, whether uncomplicated or difficult.

Chuang Tsu first illustrates how one can listen to the spirit instead of the mind in the parable of Yen Hui. When Yen Hui expresses his motives to bring order to the young ruler's chaotic sovereignty, Confucius gives him a warning; Yen Hui is not yet strong enough in the Way, and he will not be able to instruct others in the Way. Furthermore, Yen Hui may find himself losing his virtue at the cost of fame. Through fame, Yen Hui can grow full of self-importance because he will have opportunities promote himself before the audience of the young ruler. In doing so, he can point out the ruler's flaws while lifting up his own knowledge.

Instead of discouraging him from making the journey, Confucius uses two metaphors to instruct Yen Hui in listening to the spirit instead of the mind. In the first metaphor, Confucius describes the ruler's court as a bird cage: "You may go and play in his bird cage'" (58). This is an apt description of the environment Yen Hui might experience because a bird cage is a place of entrapment. Birds in cages have owners, and they are kept in the cages to bring enjoyment. "Playing" in this ruler's bird cage suggests that Yen Hui will be at the young ruler's whim, a bird to entertain him. He can become trapped mentally. If the ruler can be entertained and find enjoyment in Yen Hui's teachings, there is also the chance that the ruler will tire of Yen Hui and not listen to him. Yen Hui, by going to the young ruler's court, will find himself in an uncertain situation. He will not be able to rely upon his knowledge and experience to guide him. Therefore, Confucius tells him, "If he listens, then sing; if not; keep still. Have no gate, no opening, but…live with what cannot be avoided. Then you will be close to success'" (58). Yen Hui must be prepared for the unknown (whether the ruler receives him or not) and "what cannot be avoided" because he cannot determine how the young ruler will respond.

Preparation for uncertainty is explained through a second metaphor. Confucius defines an inner life where the spirit is still and again warns against listening to the mind:

'Look into that closed room, the empty chamber where brightness is born!

Fortune and blessing gather where there is stillness. But if you do not keep still this is what is called sitting but racing around. Let your ears and eyes communicate with what is inside, and put mind and knowledge on the outside.' (58)

The inner world, the spirit, is the closed room. If a room is closed, nothing can get in or out of it. It is a place of stillness because nothing is inside to disturb it. When one is still on the inside, the issues and problems of life, whatever they may be, are of no concern. One's virtue remains untouched and uncorrupted. As one looks inwardly, one will receive revelation, "the brightness." Brightness is "born" because it is new insight; the knowledge one has already obtained cannot be found here. The mind has to be shut out because it will actively try to look for answers and "race around." This process of looking inwardly takes effort, as one actively has to "put mind and knowledge on the outside."

The concept of looking inwardly and relying upon one's spirit for answers instead of one's mind is abstract. Therefore, Chuang Tsu must find ways to make it relatable. Metaphors make the abstract concrete because they give specific picture. While one may not immediately grasp the idea of listening to an empty spirit, one can comprehend a locked room that has nothing coming in or out. With the metaphor of the locked room, one now has the notion that one must stop listening to the mind for answers. The mind has to go blank, and during this quietness, new ideas arise. In Yen Hui's parable, a follower of the Way now has a model for letting go of preconceived ideas and gaining unexpected insight.

While Yen Hui is making a personal choice, Tzu-kao has no say in where he's being sent or why. His parable begins as he tells Confucius he believes yin and yang are out of balance in his body. He is a high minister, and he is being sent on a mission, but he is concerned about being a success. Tzu-kao reminds Confucius of something he learned from him about success in "large or small" affairs. True happiness can only be found in the Way, and "If you do not succeed, you are bound to suffer from the judgment of men'" (59) On the other hand, "If you do succeed, you are bound to suffer from the yin and yang'" (59). This imbalance is brought about by internal conflict and leads to physical illness. Already Tzu-kao can feel himself becoming sick because he is worried about how he will be received on his mission, he fears being successful, and he has no choice but to go on this mission. Tzu-kao sees his predicament as unavoidable, and he is set up to fail in the Way whether his mission is successful or not: "already I am suffering from yin and yang. And if I don not succeed, I am bound to suffer from the judgment of men. I will have both worries'" (59).

His situation is markedly different from Yen Hui's, but Tzu-kao is also faced with uncertainty and the unknown. He does not know how he can succeed, and he does not know how he will be judged. Being at rest inwardly and not allowing the mind to race applies to him, as well. This time Chuang Tsu uses several direct comparisons to not only address finding oneself in circumstances not in one's choosing, but all of life's circumstances. He begins by drawing parallels between the very close relationship of a son and his parents and the more distant relationship between a subject and ruler: "That a son should love his parents is fate -- you cannot erase this from his heart. That a subject should serve his ruler is duty'" (59-60). Something is unavoidable in each relationship. The son does not choose his parents. Nevertheless, he is expected to love them, serve them, and follow them wherever they go. Likewise, he is always under the authority and rule of his sovereign. If he wishes to be loyal to his ruler, he also must do anything his ruler wishes. Again, he does not choose his ruler, but he must still obey him. Being born to certain parents and being under the authority of a certain ruler is fate. One cannot fight against it.

Building upon the comparisons of these two relationships, Confucius then describes another, the relationship one has with one's mind:

'…[S]erve your own mind so that sadness or joy do not sway or move it; to understand what you can do nothing about and to be content with it as with fate this is the perfection of virtue. As a subject and a son, you are bound to find things you cannot avoid. If you act in accordance with the state of affairs and forget about yourself, then what leisure will you have to love life and hate death? Act in this way, and you will be all right.' (60)

It may seem as if Chuang Tsu contradicts himself by suggesting one "serve the mind," when earlier, in Yen Hui's parable, he urges that one should ignore it. However, the advice is quite similar. He says to serve the mind "so that sadness or joy do not sway or move it." Human beings are easily swayed by their emotions, products of the mind. It is easy to find joy in obeying one's parents, while serving a ruler can bring sadness. Chuang Tsu is saying that no matter how pleasurable or how painful the emotions, they should be ignored. In other words, the mind still needs to be ignored, as well. The mind recognizes certain relationships as pleasurable or difficult and uses that knowledge to produce the corresponding emotions of joy and sadness. For this reason, Tuz-kao, or any follower of the Way, must "forget…yourself" while carrying out duties. Again, one cannot focus on the known or unknown or whether one has a choice in one's circumstances. If one always focuses on receiving answers from the spirit, that part of oneself that does not have preconceived notions in how to respond or act, one can be free of the burdens of internal conflicts and worry.

After Confucius explains how Tzu-kao can avoid sickness through imbalance, he then speaks more generally on human relationships and how people communicate with each other. As this relates to Tzu-kao, he will need to be careful in how he talks to other men. However, no matter one's situation and whether one knows the person one communicates with or not, the comparisons and aphorisms in this section can be applied to any situation. First, Confucius addresses how difficult it is to "transmit words that are pleasing to both parties or infuriating to both parties'" (60). He asserts that there must be exaggeration, or an over willingness to please the other, when both parties agree, and an over willingness to focus on disagreements when the parties disagree. This is an important illustration for Tzu-kao because he will be communicating with men who may either agree or disagree with him. To avoid exaggeration, Chuang Tsu has Confucius recite an aphorism, or a known and respected adage to transmit "established facts" and not "words of exaggeration" (60).

Second, Confucius describes what usually occurs in competition, whether that competition is physical sport or drinking. What begins as friendly or orderly leads to ill will and deceit. The very nature of the competition and desire to win draws this out of people and overwhelms them. Confucius goes on to finish this section by comparing words to "wind and waves'" and says "actions are a matter of gain and loss'" (61). The effects of what people say can be unpredictable, just as wind and waves are. Words have emotional impact. They can be soothing like a breeze or light current, or they can cause great damage like a cyclone or maelstrom. If people are led by their minds and follow their emotions, what they hear, especially if they do not agree with it, can bring the worst out of them. Not knowing the origins of these turbulent emotions will keep them from being able to control their behavior: "if you press them too hard, [men] are bound to answer you with ill-natured hearts. If they themselves do not understand why they behave like this, then who knows where it will end?'" (61).