(Human Genome Project, DNA Forensics, 2006) Examples of genetic testing use of DNA in forensic identification are: (1) identification of potential suspects from DNA left at crime scene; (2) exoneration of those wrongly accused of crimes; (3) identification of crime and catastrophe victims; (4) establishment of paternity and other family relationship; (5) identification of endangered and protected species in aiding wildlife officials and in prosecution of poachers; (6) detection of bacteria and other organisms that may be pollutants of air, water, soil and food; (7) matching of organ donors with recipients in transplant programs; (8) determination of pedigree for seed or livestock breeds; and (9) authentication of consumables such as caviar and wine. (U.S. Department of Justice, 2003; DNA Forensics, 2006) DNA typing is accomplished through obtaining DNA samples through designing "small pieces of DNA probes that will each seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates a distinctive pattern for an individual. Only one-tenth of a single percent of DNA differs from one person to the next. Scientists can use these variable regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual" (DNA Forensics, 2006) by using blood, bone, hair, and other body tissue samples. DNA technologies used in forensic investigations are inclusive of the following: (1) Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP); (2) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Analysis; (3) Short-Tandem Repeat (STR) Technology; (4) Mitochondrial DNA Analysis and (5) Y-Chromosome Analysis. (DNA Forensics 2006) RLFP is a technique used in analysis of the "variable lengths of DNA fragments" resulting from the digestion of a DNA sample with a unique type of enzyme which cuts DNA "at a specific sequence pattern known as a restriction endonuclease recognition site." (DNA Forensics, 2006) the presence or absence of specific recognition sites in a DNA sample generates variable lengths of DNA fragments, which are separated and hybridized with DNA probes that bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample. (DNA Forensics, 2006; paraphrased) the PCR analysis is used in making millions of exact DNA copies from a biological sample, which serves toward better analysis. The STR analysis is used for evaluation of specific regions within nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA analysis is extremely valuable in 'cold cases' (National Institute of Justice, 2002)...

Finally, Y-Chromosome analysis relates to a chromosome passed "directly from father to son" making this type of analysis useful in tracing relationships among males.
SUMMARY and CONCLUSION

Genetic testing applications offer great potential in today's society from early detection of disease, to exonerating the wrongfully accused, to identifying criminals that otherwise would have gone on to other commission of crimes, to paternity testing and the new possibility of correction of genetic abnormalities and this is only to list a few. Genetic testing has opened doors for scientific, medical health and prevention, and social advances in quality of life as well as water and food quality measures. Genetic testing is greatly beneficial in today's society.

Bibliography

Advancing Justice Through DNA Technology (2003) Using DNA to Solve Crimes. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Summary. Online available at http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/dnapolicybook_exsum.htm

DNA Forensics (2006) Human Genome Project. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, Office of Biological and Environmental Research. Online available at http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml

Genetic Testing - Patient Privacy and Discrimination Considerations (2007) American Cancer Society. Online available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_6X_Genetic_Testing_-_Patient_Privacy_and_Discrimination_Considerations_5.asp?sitearea=

Guidelines for Genetic Testing (2003) Genetic-Medicine Related Societies. August 2003.

Jacobs, R. (1997) Genetic Screening - Uses, Potential Abuses and Ethical Issues. 20 March 1997 Occupational Health Journal Vol 47, 367-370. Online available at http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/47/6/367.pdf

Jakupciak, J.P. And O'Connell, C.D. (2005) Mitochondrial DNA as a Biomarker of Disease Detection. Health and Medical Technologies. Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Online available at http://www.cstl.nist.gov/projects/fy05/health05jakupciak.pdf

Using DNA to Solve Cold Cases (2002) National Institute of Justice. July 2002. U.S. Department of Justice. Online available at http://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles1/nij/194197.txt

Genetic Testing: Forensic, Predictive and Carrier