Project management history, definitions, and life cycle concepts

Project Management

Project Information, History, Intent, and Life Cycle

Gray and Larson, (2008) define project as "a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result." (p 5). Essential feature of a project is that it has a defined beginning and end often subject to time or fund constraint to achieve stakeholder's goals and objectives. Gray and Larson (2008) differentiate between project and program. "A program is a group of related projects designed to accomplish a common goal over an extended period of time." (Gray and Larson, 2008 p 6). Major goal of any project is to satisfy customers' objectives, and features of a project are they:

have established objectives.

Have a life span definitely a start and the end.

Usually involve several professionals and departments.

Have specific costs, time and performance requirements.

However, a project is different from program where workers are performing repetitive operations daily within an organization. Contrarily, a project has a defined start and end. For example, an organization could assign projects to an IT engineers to design different database to clients. Moreover, a project has a set of routing and procedures making it very unique. (Martin, and Tate,2004).

Typically, a project manager controls each project within a program and a major difference between a project and program is the time span and scale. For example, a healthcare organization can have a health program to cure cancer. The cancer program will involve number of projects that will be extended over time, and the organization will derive benefits from the program by managing the project individually. While each project has its own scope and goal, however, 'Program goals are closely related to broad strategic organization goals." (Gray and Larson, 2008 p 7).

Project History

Since the creation of mankind, man has implemented series of projects. The cavemen were able to achieve their project objectives by hunting animals in group to feed themselves and other member of the families. However, the history of mega projects started in the last 4,500 years ago, and the pyramid of Giza in Egypt is an example of a mega project that man has successfully completed. Other mega projects completed several thousand of years back are Gothic Cathedrals of Europe, Great Wall of China, and Transcontinental Railway. Typically, all these projects have the same features of modern projects; these projects had a project charter, project sponsor and project justification. Moreover, these projects followed the modern project management process such as planning, monitoring, controlling, executing and closing. Despite the project management process integrated in the projects, however, the project stakeholders did not use professional project managers to implement the projects. Until 1900, engineers, architects and master builders implemented most small and large civil engineering projects. Between 1861 and 1919, Henry Gantt introduced planning and control techniques in the application of engineering, civil construction and other heavy projects. Henry Gantt is famous for its application of Gantt chart in the project management. Moreover, Henri Fayol introduced five management functions that assisted in enhancing a greater understanding of project management. Frederick Taylor also develops scientific management, and tools such as resource allocations and WBS (work breakdown structure), which have become modern project management tools. However, after the Second World War, the project stakeholders started systematically integrating the project management concepts and tools in many complex engineering projects.

Starting from 1950s, stakeholders started integrating project management tools in the core of engineering projects, and project management became identified as a distinct discipline and integrated in the engineering model. For example, CMP (Critical Path Method) was developed to manage plant and maintenance projects. Moreover, United States used PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) for the Polaris missile submarine project.

Life Cycle

One of the best ways to illustrate project is to use a project life cycle. A project lifecycle is a series of phase from the project's initiation to closure, and management involved in the project determines number of the project's phases. The project manager can break the project's phases into specific milestones with specific scope of work. Thus, the project lifecycle provides the strategy to manage a project. (Project Management Institute, 2013).

Larson and Gray (2011) argue that project managers can identify project life cycle as the cornerstone for managing successful project. According to Larson, et al. (2011), project life cycle passes through series of sequential stages that include:

Defining a project, planning, executing, and Delivering.

At defining stage, the project stakeholders define specification of the project as well as establishing the project objectives. At this stage, the project manager forms the project team and assigns responsibilities to each project team. At planning stage, the project stakeholders determine the scope of the project and project schedules. At this stage, the project manager will determine the project's budget, quality of the project and people to benefit from the project.

The executing stage of the project involves measure to control costs and specifications. This stage, the stakeholders will also be involved in forecasting measures to control costs and necessary changes for the project's implementation. The final stage is the closing stage that involves delivering the project to the project owners. At this stage, the project team will release the project materials and equipment.

"Project definition: WBS, Responsibility Matrix and Communication Plan"

A project is a temporary activity to create a unique product or service. The temporary nature of a project shows that a project has definite start and end, and the end is reached when the project stakeholders have achieved their objectives. The customer or sponsor may decide to terminate a project if the project is no more needed. However, the concept temporary in the project definition does not mean that the project's duration is short, major objective of a project is to create lasting outcomes. For example, the national monument project is to deliver results that will last for centuries. Moreover, a project can focus on the improvement of a product using a Six-Sigma technique to reduce product defects. A project can also involve delivering a service. For example, a research project is an example of a service project focusing on delivering knowledge outcome. (Project Management Institute, 2013).

However, WBS (work breakdown structure) is a critical project tool that assists in successful completion of a project and a WBS is the process of dividing a project tasks into a manageable form. Key benefits of WBS are that it assists the stakeholders to have a structural vision of project activities to be delivered. The WBS is also defined as a hierarchical decomposition of the total work to be accomplished by the project team. (The Times 101-2014).Typically, the WBS assists project managers to manage all products to be delivered based on the project's specifications. One of the benefits of WBS is that it assists the project manager to evaluate time, costs, as well as technical performances of all tasks to be delivered within the project lifecycle. (Gray and Larson, 2008). Since the project manager assigns costs and time to each task, the strategy will assist in arriving at accurate cost estimate for a project. With the information, the project manager will be able to track costs and project's performances.

Responsibility Matrix

However, Gray and Larson, (2008) point that elaborate WBS does not necessarily warrant the scope, and size of a project, in order words, "a responsibility matrix is a grid that shows the project resources assigned to each work package. It is used to illustrate the connections between work packages or activities and project team members" (Project Management Institute, 2013 p 262). The RM (responsibility matrix) is a tool that a project manager use for a project, the RM summarizes the tasks that the project manager will accomplish and identify the project team to carry out the tasks. In order words, RM chart reveals all the project activities as well as participants responsible to carry out the tasks. As being revealed in Fig l, the project manager can use responsibility matrix to list all the tasks to be carried out, and the project team to carry out specific tasks.

Fig 1: Market Research Project Responsibility Matrix

8.Project documents updates

Larson & Gray (2011) define a project network as a graphical representation that delivers logical sequence of activities and a project path. Typically, the project network assists in estimating time to complete a project, however, a network diagram is an important tool to develop network planning using linear pattern. The network diagram should have a network path connecting all network paths together. Critical path revealing the longest duration while activity which reveals an element that consumes time.

"Identification of project stakeholders and their concerns"

A stakeholder is an individual or group of individual or organizations that may be affected by the activity, decision as well as outcome of a project. However, Larson & Gray (2011) define project stakeholders as individuals consisting of all project team and other entities that may be interested in the project. The role of a project manager is to manage all the stakeholders to achieve the project objectives. Stakeholders have varying degree of responsibilities; their participations in the project can vary "over the course of project lifecycle." (Project Management Institute, 2013 p 31). "Identification of stakeholder serves as a continuous process throughout project life cycle." (Project Management Institute, 2013 p 31). Understanding relative degree of stakeholders' influence on a project will enhance successful project's completion. Example of project sponsors is as follows:

Sponsor: A sponsor is an individual or group of people providing support and resources for the project, which is generally accountable to a project success. A project sponsor is very important to a project. From the project's initiation to the project completion, "the sponsor promotes the project" (Project Management Institute, 2013 p 32) and gather support to enhance the project's benefits.

Customers: Customers are the individuals or organizations responsible to approve a project.

Sellers: Sellers are also part of the project stakeholder and may be suppliers, vendors or contractors. These stakeholders are external to the company and usually enter into contractual agreement to deliver necessary components or services.

Functional managers: These stakeholders play managerial roles within the functional business areas that include accounting, finance, human resources, or procurement. Generally, they are permanent staff carrying out functional area of a business.

Additional stakeholders: Other stakeholders include financial institutions, procurement entities, government regulators, and consultants. These stakeholders generally have a financial interest in an ongoing project, and they may contribute their inputs to the project outcomes.

Project Team development

Project team is the project manager and other group of individual performing the work to achieve project objectives. Larson & Gray (2011) identifies five-stage project team development model that includes:

Forming.

Storming

Norming

Performing

Adjourning.

During forming stage, the team member gets acquainted with one another and understands the project scope. At this stage, they start establishing ground rules and acceptance behaviors.

Storming: At the storming stage, the team member is susceptive to conflicts concerning who will control the group. However, the team accepts the project leaders after the conflicts are resolved.

Norming stage is the time team members develop a close relationship and demonstrates cohesiveness. At this stage, the group solidifies the strategy to work together.

At performing stage, the operating structure of the group becomes fully functional. The group gets to know one another and works together to accomplish the project goals. Adjourning is the last stage of the team development where the team focuses on a project's completion. The model has several implications because it provides the framework for assisting the group to understand the project's development.

"Performance measurement and control"

Performance measurement is the project evaluation process to ensure that a project meets the stakeholders' objectives. One of the strategies to set up performance measurement is to set up a control to compare the actual performance against plan performance in order to identify deviation in a project. The steps in measuring a project performance is:

To set a baseline plan.

To set measure for performance and progress.

To compare plan against actual.

To take action.

Periodic monitoring is very critical in the project lifecycle to detect deviations in the project, which assists comparing the actual against the plan and make necessary corrections. Major way to implement control is to identify the negative variance and make a corrective action. The Gantt chart is a tool to monitor the project performance serving as "the baseline to compare against actual performance." (Larson & Gray 2011 p 461).For example, the project manager can measure the project performance by comparing the actual project's cost against the plan costs. Moreover, the project stakeholder can use a variance analysis to compare earned value against expected project value and "compare earned value with the actual costs." (Larson & Gray 2011 p 461). Illustration in Fig 3 reveals the variance between earned value and actual costs.

Fig 3: Variance between earned value and actual costs.

Application of key Concepts to a Real World Situation

All the concepts discussed above are very applicable in a real world situation. For example, the project history can assist the project manager to understand the strategies ancient projects are implemented. As being discussed in the previous section, the mega project completed several thousands years use the same project management cost to complete the project. For example, the Egyptians integrated the project management concepts to complete the Pyramid of Egypt. A project manager can employ the strategy used to complete the ancient projects to complete the modern project. Using the project information that has been successfully completed in the past can assist the project manager to understand the strategy to complete the modern projects.

The project lifecycle is very important in understanding the project initiation to project completion. Understanding the strategy the previous projects are started and completed can assist the project manager to complete the future projects following the same strategy.

Managing the project costs is very important in the project lifecycle, and it is the responsibility of the project manager to manage the cost to avoid the cost escalation. The WBS will assist the project manager to allot cost and time to a project. Using this strategy the project manager will be able to complete the project based on the time and cost allotted to a project. (Programme Management Office, 2012). For example, in 2007, the North Carolina government used the top-down approach to estimate the marketplace project with the total cost of $800,000 and estimated time of 2 years. (Stouthamer, 2009).

Communication plan is another concept that can assist project stakeholders to complete a project successfully. Application of communication plan can assist project stakeholders to clarify issues applicable to a project. Effective communication plan can assist the project manager to communication important project issues to other stakeholders. More importantly, costs, time and quality of the project will assist the project manager to implement accurate cost and time estimate for a project and avoiding project cost escalations.

Application of network planning can assists a project manager in a real life situation, for example, the network planning strategy was used to make a decision whether to repair Leven Viaduct rail or close down the rail. The network planning analysis shows that the stakeholders should repair the rail for £20 million because "closing down the rail could lead to overloading the West Coast main line. This would lead to delays on a very important route from Glasgow to London." (The Times 101, 2014 p1).

Identification of project stakeholder can assist a project manager to understand whom to direct communication about the project issues. It is important for the project manager to know all the stakeholders so that the project manager will not communicate the project information to a wrong person.

Project team development is very important in a successful completion of a project. Understanding effective method of team development can assist the project manager forming appropriate team to the project who will be free of conflict during the project lifecycle. More importantly, project measurement and control will assist the project manager implement a project and adhere to project requirements.

d). Reflection

The reading materials have assisted my understanding of several concepts of the project management. First, the assignment has assisted me to understand the project history and the system used to complete the ancient mega projects that can be applicable to modern projects. Moreover, the class materials have assisted to understand the concept project lifecycle and how it can be used to plan a project. I have also understood the concept WBS and how a project manager can use the concept to manage project cost and time. I have also understood the strategy to form a project team. The method to form a project team will assist me in the future when I want to implement a similar project. More importantly, the assignment assists me to understand the method to control costs and time and measure project performances. Typically, all the concepts learned in the course materials will assist in my career as a project manager. My goal after my course is to become a project manager managing big projects, understanding all these concepts will assist me in my future career.

Reference

Larson, E.W. & Gray, C.F. (2011). Project Management - The managerial process (5th Edition), New York, The McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Martin, P., and Tate, K. (2004). Getting Started in Project Management (New York:

Wiley,)

Programme Management Office (2012).Project Charter & Scope Statement. Institute of Technology. Dublin.

Project Management Institute (2013). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (Fifth Edition). Project Management Journal.

Stouthamer, S. (2009).Conceptual Cost Estimating for Development Case Studies. Skanska.

The Times 101 (2014).Critical Path Analysis at Network Rail. A Network Rail case study. Business Case Studies LLP.