The Salem witch trials: causes and consequences

Salem Witch Trials

While in New England laws and religion aimed at undermining the "Great Enemy of God and Mankind," in England there was considerable tension between King and Parliament, tension which would result in warfare. In England, against this background of mounting tension, hundreds of witchcraft accusations were made; between 1645 and 1647 over two hundred witches were executed. However it was in the summer of 1645 that the greatest human slaughter took place when Matthew Hopkins, Witch Finder General was "at the height of his campaign to find witches." In fact, the decade between 1637 and 1647 was the bloodiest in English history in terms of hangings with 42% of indictments resulting in execution. Outbreaks followed in Scotland, 1643-50; East Anglia, 1645; Newcastle, 1648; Kent, 1652 and again in Scotland, 1661. Other such executions of alleged witches occurred elsewhere in Europe too; for instance, in Sweden in 1661 there was an episode of bewitched children which is considered to have represented an inspiration for the Goodwin case of 1688 and the Salem case of 1692. Salem has become the focal point of historical analysis of colonial witchcraft. The episode of 1692 has been separated from previous similar cases, and its origins established in the 1680s. In fact, there were around 100 incidents involving witchcraft before 1692, but there have been largely ignored by scholars.

The witchcraft trial that took place in Windsor, Connecticut in 1647 was the first of its kind in the colonies, and the first of nearly 100 witchcraft cases to come. As a result of these trials, 38 people were sentenced to death, with a few others who died in prison before being executed. The trials of Salem differed radically from previous witchcraft cases in terms of magnitude (and consequently, historical significance) and scope. However, there are also a number of similarities between Salem and the previous witchcraft episodes, such as the nature of the charges, the fits, the types of people concerned. Thesis: This paper looks at the historical development and significance of the Salem witchcraft trials, and argues that the Salem trials were pieces of a larger phenomenon, i.e. The system of belief of New England which integrated witchcraft. In doing so, the paper will consider the following aspects: the historical and social circumstances of 17th century Massachusetts, previous such episodes, the profile of the people executed on charges of witchcraft, as well as the effect of race and gender on the formulation of witchcraft allegations.

The Salem witch trials were preliminary hearings held in 1692 in several towns: Salem Village, Ipswich, Andover, as well as Salem Town, Massachusetts. The best-known such hearings were conducted in Salem Town and resulted in nineteen of witchcraft i.e. nineteen death sentences by hanging. One of the most interesting controversies ever associated with the Salem trials is that of the role of Cotton and Increase Mather in the trials in question. There have been countless speculations regarding the Mathers, ranging from accusations of propagating witch-hunt hysteria as a means of driving people back to church to open condemnation of being slow to speak out against spectral evident brought against the witches. Spectral evidence referred to the afflicted people's testimonies which incriminated the alleged witches; the afflicted claimed they saw apparitions of certain people who were causing the affliction i.e. witches. The most significant questions that arise when talking about the Salem alleged cases of witchcraft are, why did so many cases occur?, and secondly, what common traits can be identified among these cases? In order to be able to answer these two questions, one must turn their attention to several factors such as religious ideology, political and social context, as well as the profile of the accused and the accusers, and last but not least, what these accusations entailed and how they were responded to.

The profile of the 'witches'

The witches were mostly women, predominantly married or widowed, aged 41-60. With only a few exceptions, most of the young women belonging to the group of witches of Salem were also part of the families of the middle-aged witches. "In fact this pattern conformed to an assumption then widely prevalent, that the transmission of witchcraft would naturally follow the lines of family or of close friendship." In fact, as pointed out by modern anthropological analysis, in 17th century New England, young girls were frequently subject to the control of older women in their families which could account for the fact that witchcraft was considered to be passed down from generation to generation of women. This has been referred to as a "structural conflict" i.e. tension generated by the ways in which the older members of a community arrange the lives of the younger members; in fact, this conflict may have given rise to a powerful resentment on the part of the latter.

Those accused of witchcraft were regarded as having failed in resisting sin. Once Puritans decided that redemption through God's grace no longer applied to an individual, the concept of 'original sin' would start working against the individual in question with devastating effects. Furthermore, it was believed that the next logical step in the degradation of the person in question was a covenant with the Devil. Evidence supporting accusations of witchcraft was accumulated in three ways: by confession, by searching for witch marks and by collection of testimonies of witchcraft (spectral evidence) but the first two alone meant automatic proof of guilt followed by execution. In the case of Elizabeth Knapp, the accusers were concerned with the discovery of witch marks on the bodies of the accused. The seven accusers claimed they had seen them, and this was sufficient evidence that led to the girl's execution. Moreover, because Mrs. Sataplies - the woman whose house Elizabeth was employed in - did not believe Knapp was guilty of witchcraft and found no witch marks on the girl's body after the latter was hanged, she was also suspected of being a witch. The girl's accusers claimed she had had the marks, and that it was enough to convict and execute her.

There is one more important aspect to consider as far as the lives of the 'witches'. Their alleged meetings frequently included feasts, i.e. The witches' "main form of self-indulgence," but as opposed to their European counterparts, New England witches were not associated with any kind of sexual activities. In fact, this aspect accounts for the difference in how the witches were perceived in New England compared to continental Europe in the sense that in America they were seen as victims of their own aggressive impulses, whereas in Europe their impulses were considered "libidinal."

The role of race in New England witchcraft

In this section of the paper we will look at the influence of race on the perception of witchcraft and 'evilness'. In this discussion we will refer to African-Americans as "Blacks" and to Caucasians as "Whites" in order to utilize the same terms as the writings of the 17th century, as well as modern anthropological studies of the phenomenon in question.

Blacks were considered by Whites as "true witches in the anthropological sense." This meant they were viewed as inherently evil creatures who were unable to control their aggressive impulses which were though to be the result of satanic influence. Unlike Blacks, white people who were accused of witchcraft were considered perverted in the sense that they had signed a sort of contract with Satan, and had agreed to become evil. In this sense, Whites considered other Whites to have a choice whereas Blacks were born evil. Moreover, Whites believed that the only way Blacks could be 'cured' of their evil was to become white which was obviously not possible hence they were doomed to remain 'evil'.

In colonial New England, Blacks were frequently accused of witchcraft and were powerless within society hence they could not prove their innocence because they lacked even the most basic rights. There was tension between Whites and non-Whites (Blacks and Native Americans) due to the fear of Native American aggression and Blacks' "evilness." However, it is interesting to note here that despite the fact that non-Whites had basically no rights whatsoever, it was the Whites who were accused of witchcraft that were punished far more severely. This could be explained by the fact that Blacks slaves and were considered valuable property which could not be destroyed. Secondly, the expenses of executing Whites were borne by their own estates whereas in the case of enslaved Africans, these expenses could not be recovered. Moreover, executing slaves meant serious capital loss for their owners which was highly undesirable, and can account for why owners never accused their slaves of witchcraft.

However, the most important factor which protected Blacks from being executed was, ironically enough, the preconception of Whites. Blacks were seen as morally inferior to white people, therefore the colonizers did not expect the same moral standards from them as they did from themselves. In addition, Whites feared the Blacks' magical powers. This fear was expressed through the symbolic system of Puritan witch beliefs. In this sense, the only category of convicts which were burned to death was that of the so-called "satanic Blacks" as this was considered to be the only way of destroying their 'evilness.' In Puritan New England ideology, Blacks were associated with Satan. This belief was the remnant of an old European image of Satan as a black man which dated back to long before the contact between Africans and Europeans in the New World. However, one must note here that Satan was never seen as a Native American. Whites only feared Native Americans because of the constant warfare between them. "In fact there has been speculation that witchcraft outbreaks occurred when there was a great deal of anxiety among Whites resulting from intense raids by Native Americans."

Evilness' vs. Illness

With Calvinism being the dominant religious ideology in both England and most of its colonies, witchcraft trials were not an uncommon phenomenon because Calvinism included the concept of witchcraft, and satanic intervention. However, the psychological causes of the victims' manifestations were never taken into consideration simply because no proper psychological evaluation and diagnosis existed. Instead, Calvinists relied completely on the reading of the Bible which represented the source for their beliefs regarding Satan. Because they did not believe in simple misfortune, such as in the case of an accident or an illness, Puritans assumed that the misfortune in question was the result of the ill wishes of someone close to the victim who had appealed to an 'evil-doer' such as witches. This is why 17th century symptoms were 'negotiated' by Calvinists since they were unable to properly diagnose mental illnesses. In the case of Salem, the court initially proceeded on the basis of a diagnosis of bewitchment which had been established by the accusers. Because the number of witchcraft trials was increasing, there was the need for a change in diagnosis so that the so-called witches would be considered completely powerless in front of their 'satanic puppet-master'.

Calvinists believed that the only correct way to approach any kind of problem was to search for God's purpose and to find meaning and answer in the word of the bible. These were followed, in the case of afflictions, by repentance and seeking removal of the affliction in question through appropriate means depending on the type of problem. In the case of severe afflictions, Calvinists resorted to prayer and fasting. Despite the number of witchcraft trials, it is relevant to note here that Puritans were no more prone to witch-hunts than anyone else in that period.

Calvinists believed the Devil acted in three ways. The most common was considered temptation which mankind must resist. Temptation consisted of sinful images that the Devil presented to human imagination. Also, Satan could employ the two extreme afflictions that were mentioned in the Canon of 1604, i.e. possession and obsession. The leading Congregationalist, Nathaniel Holmes, argued that the most afflicted i.e. those who suffered possession, would be horribly physically disfigured in the process. The less severe form of Satanic affliction was obsession which entailed that Satan only had power over the afflicted person's body. This form was considered to lead to suicide, and was blamed on witches. The diagnosis of possession was frequently issued by the scholars of the community, and thus imposed on the less learned. In fact, this is how the concept of witchcraft was formulated. The victims of witchcraft were seen as entirely innocent, and their sole duty was to identify the witch so that the latter could receive her punishment.

Because direct obsession by the Devil was only rarely invoked, there were four available explanations for extreme psychological symptoms. The criteria for this classification of symptoms was both in terms of natural vs. demonic, and of guilt vs. innocence. Calvinists believed bewitchment or obsession by the Devil through a witch involved an innocent victim, similarly to natural disease in the sense that they believed God was sending the affliction for some good reason. In the case of a possession, similarly to a case of fraud, the person in question was considered guilty. Hence the only way for witchcraft accusers to be certain their case was trialed as witchcraft was to hold high social status or a good reputation; otherwise these so-called victims risked a second diagnosis which could turn against them.

In 1660 New England had no tradition of demonic possessions. In 1669, Thomas Walley wrote, "Many are possessed with an Evil spirit"; this in fact referred to the sins of the colonies. First generation New England preachers focused on the afflictions of God rather than on those of Satan, and treated sin itself as the opposite of God instead of the Devil. However this would all change in 1671 when in Groton, Massachusetts, domestic servant Elizabeth Knapp pressed for a bewitchment diagnosis. The 16-year-old girl exhibited strangely aggressive behavior which culminated with the murder of her neighbor. The Reverend of Groton judged the girl to be upright before God. Under pressure, the girl confessed that she had been tempted by Satan but had denied surrendering herself to him. A physician prescribed her treatment for a natural disease, but her fits occurred again, and her spiritual condition remained the same. Reverend Willard of Groton expressed concern at her lack of repentance and fear that she had not fully confessed. When Elizabeth's fits occurred again, the physician interrupted her treatment and diagnosed her affliction as diabolical in origin. Although the girl continued to deny demonic possession, and attempted to resume the accusations of witchcraft, Rev. Willard no longer believed her and claimed she had covenanted with Satan. Eventually a diagnosis of demonic possession was agreed upon by everyone.

Significance of the Salem Trials. Anthropological interpretations.

Modern anthropological interpretations have determined that witchcraft functioned "as a mechanism of social control as well as an outlet for frustrations, anxiety, and aggressive impulses." The alleged witches were used as scapegoats for the projection of aggressive impulses in society which generated a form of relief. This function of relieving stress and tension acted not only at the level of the individuals who trialed witches, but also at the level of the community as a whole. These accusations of witchcraft also served as a means of restoring social equilibrium in a society which becomes unable to handle rapid change such as in the case of colonial America. Massachusetts was in a state of unrest in the 1680s and 1690s with New England society and religion both declining.

People feared the wrath of God and the possibility of society becoming corrupted by Satan through his agents. In 1684 the Crown revoked the Charter of Massachusetts and two years later, New England found itself under one government in the Dominion of New England which led to Massachusetts losing much of its traditional self-determination right. This state of decay and despair was amplified by the arrival of the royal governor Sir Edmund Andros who benefited from dictatorial power in the colony. The outbreak of civil war in England represented the pretext and opportunity for Massachusetts to send Andros home in chains. The state of Massachusetts received a new charter in 1691 but the political context of the era had deeply affected New England society, and this would give rise to the "witch mania of 1691-92" which is considered "a symbol of profound changes in the structure and evolution of Massachusetts society." Other scholars (Boyes, Nissebaum) have argued that the origins of witchcraft accusations in New England were directly linked to local struggles and personal antagonism such as those that were present in Salem Village where inhabitants were engaged in disputes over land, village boundaries, commercial development, as well as the establishment of a local ministry.

Conclusion

The fear of witches and demons that spread through Western society between the 16th and 17th centuries took many forms. In New England colonial leaders became concerned during the 1640s with the emergence of witchcraft that was viewed as the Devil's desire to subvert God's Commonwealth. Legal steps were taken by the Puritans in the attempt to protect themselves from what they regarded as witchcraft. Consequently, in 1636 Plymouth included in its Summary Offences that were "liable to death," the action of "Solemn Compaction or conversing with the devil by way of Witchcraft, conjuration or the like."

The most shocking aspect of the Salem trials is the way these hearings were actually conducted. Several teenage girls accused two hundred people of practicing witchcraft. Many of the accused were trialed by unqualified judges, and did not benefit from any sort of legal defense. Moreover, there was no physical evidence in any of the witchcraft cases; the accusations were based solely on spectral evidence. The significance of the witch trials that took place in Salem towards the end of the 17th century on American society was tremendous. It was precisely these trials which launched the term witch-hunt used to describe the search of witches who were, in fact, either mental patients, or simply people who led lives that were different from the norm imposed by the Puritans.