Student Centered Teaching Progressivism, Social

Student Centered Teaching

Progressivism, Social Reconstructionism and Existentialism vs." Essentialism and Perennialism

The face of the American educational system has been changing dramatically over the past several decades. Since the inception of standardized education in the U.S., the fabric of society itself has undergone dramatic changes. Yet, the educational system continues to promote the paradigms that prevailed since the systems very beginning. It can be argued that the system is in need of some dramatic changes if we are to compete in a world where globalization means coping with increasing competition. This research will explore teacher centered and student centered philosophies. It will support the hypothesis that student centered philosophies benefit the student more than teacher centered philosophies.

Standardized education was developed on teacher-centered philosophies. However, recent trends suggest that student centered philosophies would better prepare student's to meet the demands of today's job market. Teacher centered philosophies do not consider the student's active role in the learning process. Students are treated as something to be acted upon a head to be filled with facts. However, student centered philosophies consider the whole student and the needs of the student in the educational process. These are the key differences between teacher centered and student centered philosophies.

Introduction

Teacher Centered Philosophies

There are two primary types of teacher-centered philosophies. They are essentialism and perennialism. Essentialists believe that the subject matter is the center of the curriculum. Many of them feel that greater educational opportunities are the reason for lowered standards in the schools. One of their key criticism of student centered philosophies is they place the emphasis on the child and teaching utilizing a varieties and activities. They criticize progressives for allowing the child too much freedom in choosing their curriculum (Cliff, 1996.).

Teacher centered methods of treating include rote learning methods that have been proven to be minimally effective at best. One of the key problems with rote learning is that the students fail to integrate the material into their daily lives. They might do well on the tests, but they have difficulty making real life description Students taught in this manner might receive good grades, due to their ability to memorize material. Therefore, the teacher would look good, as their students appear to be high achievers.

However, in this case, the numbers do not tell the entire picture. Essentialist philosophies, with their curriculum-centered basis, hold students to high academic standards. Standardized testing in one of the key elements of the teacher centered essentialist viewpoint. One of the key advantages of standardized testing is that it provides specific benchmarks for evaluation purposes. One can easily determine if the student has met the prescribed benchmarks.

However, there are those that feel this advantage is underscored by the many arguments against standardized testing. For instance, there are some that feel standardized testing increases drop-out rates (Amrein & Berliner, 2002). Teacher centered philosophy holds that if a child performs poorly on the tests, then they need to work a little harder for the next time. However, there are many reasons why a student might not perform will on standardized tests that are not academically based. Those that do not perform well on standardized tests might not be motivated to work harder for better performance the next time. They might develop self-esteem problems as a result, leading to a higher likelihood that they will drop out of school.

There are also those that feel standardized testing leads to higher drop out rates among minorities due to social and cultural inequalities in the tests (Fratt, 2005). They also feel that standardized tests lead to higher levels of cheating and a narrower curriculum than student centered philosophies (Edwards, n. d.). Standardized test create pressure as students and teachers allow the tests to become the primary force in their lives and the curriculum. Students depend on the tests to graduate and the pressure to pass can be devastating (Ullman, 2005). Standardized testing narrows the curriculum as it becomes necessary to focus on the achievement of high scores on the exams. This can result in a reduction in learning in all areas of the curriculum (Edwards, 2006.).

Essentialism provides few opportunities to adjust the curriculum or to adjust the methods of teaching to the needs of the child. Essentialism is based on unchangeable methods and rigid formats (Cliff, 1996). Essentialism can be called antiquated in the age of the computer. This is because essentialism begins with the learning of facts. However, with the ease of data transfer now available, it is no longer necessary to carry all of the information in one's head. The emphasis has transformed from learning facts to knowing how to use the information that is at one's fingertips.

The advent of the computer requires a paradigm shift in the educational process, one that essentialists fail to recognize or embrace. Perennialist philosophy is closely related to essentialist philosophy. However, they are even more rigid in their viewpoint on information and change. Perennialists believe that ideas that were taught centuries ago are still relevant today. Perennialists carry tradition to the extreme. Perennialists do not feel the information for information's sake is the main point of education. However, they emphasize the application of that knowledge to today's circumstances.

Student Centered Philosophies

Student centered philosophies include progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism. Student centered philosophies developed from the belief that all students learn at different rates, and that lessons need to be culturally relevant. There are also differences in the resources available to schools to help students learn the material. These differences are key arguments against standardized testing and in favor of a more student centered approach.

Student centered approaches to education emphasize the application of these ideas to everyday circumstances and problems. This philosophical approach is based on the ideas that information must be useful in order to have value. Perennialists echo this same philosophy, but they are not willing to accept changes in the curriculum to accommodate changes in society. This philosophy is the opposite of progressivism, which holds that lessons must be relevant to the students and the world around them in order for them to be able to learn. Progressivist schools are built around the personal needs and interests of the student (Sadker & Sadker, 2003).

Progressivist philosophy centers on the physical, emotional, and intellectual growth of the student. They treat the students as individuals, rather than stamped duplicates of the human race. They believe that students learn best when they study something that interests them. Essentialist and perennialist philosophies do not consider the wants and needs of the student at all. They only repeat the same curriculum over and over again without any consideration for the student and the student's needs. Progressivist models focus on fostering the roots of independent thought, rather than emphasizing the acceptance of the thoughts of others without question.

The idea of progressive education arose from the idea that education must fit the needs of society. John Dewey is considered to be the father of progressive educational thought. He believed that the classroom represented a microcosm of the larger community ("Progressive Education," n.d.). Dewey believed that the school could teach children the skills that they needed to have a positive effect on society. John Dewey changed the focus of education from the institution to that of the student. Dewey felt that the relationship between thinking and doing was an important part in the encouragement of active participation in a democratic society ("Progressive Education," n.d.). Dewey broke from the traditional mold of discipline and pointless repetition.

Social reconstructivism emphasizes the role of the child even more so than progressivism. Creativity and self-actualization are the key tenants of social reconstructivism. This philosophy is the direct opposite of teacher centered philosophies. This philosophy was introduced by Paulo Freire (Bondy, 1999). This philosophy taught students to question society, particularly unfairness and inhumanity. It challenged students to work toward a more human society and positive future. It taught students to challenge unfairness, rather than to accept it without question (Bondy, 1999).

Existentialism emphasizes the individual, rather than the institution. Existentialist philosophy is built on the principles of freewill and the right of every person to make their own decisions. Existentialists do not believe that reason and science are the keys to understanding the questions that arise in life, but that the truth lies in questioning one's own self to seek these answers. This educational philosophy believes that children need to be guided down a path that allowed them to make their own choices based on their existing knowledge base.

They use these skills to gain more knowledge that they do not have. Existentialists believe that a person has the right to make no choice at all and that this encompasses a choice, in actuality. In this educational setting, the teacher acts as a guide to the discovery of new knowledge, rather than the ultimate source of knowledge. The student is responsible for his or her own learning and they are the ones to dictate where it will lead.

Now we have examined two extremes in educational thought that have developed over the past century. Teacher centered and student centered philosophies differ significantly in their approach to the student-teacher relationship. Teacher centered philosophy does not depend on the student's wants and needs at all. Teacher centered philosophy uses antiquated methods, such as rote learning. However, these methods are quickly being replaced by a more student-centered approach. Student centered approaches to learning are an important part of the new technologically advanced society. The following will explore the role of student-centered philosophies in the emerging technological tends

Teaching Philosophies and the Changing Society

The emphasis of essentialism and perennialism is on standardization and the learning of material. This style of learning is authoritarian and disciplinarian. The study is acted upon and has no choice or preference in the material or the method by which they choose to learn it. They are simply an object that either meets or fails to meet standards placed upon them by entities whom they have never met. The student that rebels and chooses not to learn are penalized by the inability to attain work and achieve a meaningful position in society.

High Stakes Assessments and "No Child Left Behind"

High stakes assessments are an integral part of essentialist and perennialist philosophies. The original concept of these assessments was to raise the standards of American education so that it would be more competitive on a global basis. It was devised with the best of intentions and was supposed to be the "cure-all" for an educational system that failed to produce productive members of society. Since the inception of standardized testing, there have been a rash of claims that it is not the answer to America's educational woes, but rather it has exacerbated the problem to the point where the educational system is dysfunctional. There are some that claim the only good standardized testing has accomplished is to bring the problems with the educational system to the forefront.

Earlier, we discussed the narrowing of curriculum and high drop out rates caused the performance pressures associated with the tests. In support of these tests, one could say that it has had the effect of "weeding out" those that are not up to standard. However, this seems contrary to the original goals of standardized testing from the beginning. Rather than "no child left behind," standardized testing appears to leave many children behind. Since their inception, standardized test have been an object of debate in the educational community and in the community at large.

Standardized testing dates back to the mid-1899s as a means to evaluate the teaching ability of the teacher (Gallagher, 2003 in Edwards. 2006). Tests soon became a popular way to assess student progress and to make decisions about advancement. During World War I, the U.S. Army asked for a means to be developed that would help them to spot officer candidates among the thousands of recruits (Finneran, 2002). The test that was developed had an efficient and effective scoring method, which soon became the standard for many other standardized testing measures. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Title I) used standardized tests as the basis for distribution of federal funds for underperforming schools (Scott, 2004).

From their beginnings, standardized tests were accused of bias based on class and cultural differences. During the mid-1960s blacks claimed that these tests reinforced social biases and economic disparities between the classes (Scott, 2004). Supporters of standardized testing blame the child's home environment for differences in test scores (Scott, 2004). This further supported the supposition that standardized tests widened the cultural gap between those of various cultural backgrounds. These same criticisms are still being made against standardized tests being administered today.

Curriculum/Learning

Standardized testing leads to increased accountability for teachers and administrators. When students performed poorly on standardized tests, administrators and teachers were held accountable. We discussed the narrowing of curriculum as a result of standardized testing. As teachers and administrators became accountable for standardized test scores, they began to alter the curriculum so that it more closely matched the contents of the standardized tests. By the 1980s, a majority of states had mandated some form of minimum testing to determine academic readiness (Gallagher, 2003).

Since that time, the use of standardized tests has continued to increase and they continue to drive the curriculum that is being taught in schools even more than in the past. As pressure to succeed on standardized tests increases, teachers must spend more time on the material on the test. This leaves less time for them to expand on the curriculum and teach extras. Teachers no longer have the ability to expand the minds of the students by introducing them topics of interest, unless it is a topic that is on the test. This severely limits the ability to broaden student's horizons and expand their minds. They can only concentrate on the limited content that is a part of the standardized test procedure.

One expansion on the essentialist viewpoint is that of the functionalist view of society. This viewpoint is conservative in that it reflects a social order that is mandated from outside forces. This viewpoint supports the imposition of a hierarchical structure on society. This viewpoint limits the role of the school to teaching children the basics that they need to learn to function in society. It considered that the American society needs schools to teach their children to read, write and speak well above all other functions of the system (deMarrais & LeCompte, 1999). The functionalist viewpoint also holds that the educational system should focus on training children to be good workers (deMarrais & LeCompte, 1999).

There might be other subjects that parents want their children to learn, such as to be honest, ethical, and to importance of freedom, but these are not considered to be I the realm of the school's responsibilities according to the functionalist viewpoint (deMarrais & LeCompte, 1999). The functionalist viewpoint is pragmatic and focuses on work skills above anything else. There are some that claim standardized tests do more for establishing the hierarchy in schools, as far as academic accountability is concerned. However, in doing so, they undermine the function of learning. Functionalist philosophy is not concerned with the student receiving a balanced educational experience. They are only concerned that the school system produces excellent workers and that they know their place in society.

Technology

It is largely recognized by the school system and by those that advocate standardized testing that students must not only compete on a local or national level, but that they must also compete against students from around the world. The globalization of the marketplace means the American workers must be able to compete with those from the rest of the world. This translates into the need to produce students that measure up as well. Political and economic considerations are the driving forces behind the educational system.

The United States is the world's largest economy. However, a 1983 report stated that America's position was at risk from competitors such as Japan and Germany (Tozer, Violas, & Senese, 2002). Test scores offered politicians a way to gauge our potential future competitiveness against that of other countries. However, this is a dangerous assumption and represents an error of causality because student performance is only one perspective in the global competitiveness of the United States. The logic used by the 1983 "Nation at Risk" report makes the assumption the test scores equate the ability to perform the assigned work. However, this might not always be the case. Standardized testing has caused a false sense of security in this respect. One assumes that as test scores improve, so will our ability to compete on a global basis, but there are many other factors that determine the ability to compete other than student performance on test scores.

Standardized testing is convenient from several perspectives. It gives a means to make definitive decisions regarding whether student and teacher performance is up to standard. Using computers and automatic readers, tests are easy to score and compare. However, these scores say nothing about the worker's ethics, or dedication to the workforce. There are many factors that standardized tests cannot measure that might affect the work produced much more than scores on standardized tests.

Students must be able to use a variety of technological devices as a matter of their normal business day. The ability to use standard software packages and the Internet are an important part of the educational process. Children are just as illiterate today if they do not know how to use a computer as if they do not know how to read. In order to function in today's society, children must be able to use standard pieces of technology. However, this is one area where a great divide has taken place. There are various degrees of availability as far as access to technology is concerned. Poorer schools might not have the resources necessary to provide their children the opportunity to understand the use technology. This places them at a disadvantage in the job market when they graduate.

Schools that have access to technology have a greater ability to expose students to the use of it. However, just because schools have access to the technology does not necessarily mean that their students have adequate exposure to it. Many times the use of technology must fall in line behind reading, writing, and test preparation. Time spent preparing for standardized tests takes away time from other subject, including knowing how to use the available technology. There are many resources available that can help students prepare for standardized tests including test preparation sites, practice tests, and a variety of other resources. However, poorer schools might not have access to these resources, and wealthier schools tend to focus more on traditional test preparation methods. Technology could increase the efficiency of test preparation, allowing for more time to expand the curriculum and to provide additional help where needed. The under use of technology in the preparation for standardized tests is a major set-back for American students. Not only will they not know how to use the technology when they get into the workforce, they are foregoing a valuable resource that could help in the test preparation itself.

It is ironic that in an educational system that places such a great emphasis on measurable performance standards that such a disparity exists in the use of technology in our schools. The United States is considered to be one of the most technologically advanced nations in the world, yet our school system continues to under use the technology that is available. The availability of technology creates a cultural divide between wealthy and poor segments of the country. However, there are more factors than availability that affect the use of technology in the school systems.

Lately, there has been an increase in online schools as an alternative to the traditional school setting. Standardized testing allows them to make certain that their students receive the same curriculum and level of instruction that is available in the brick and mortar classroom. However, the online setting often gives the student the ability to choose from several different methods to learn the same material. Online schools are not perfect and there are many areas that need to be worked out, but they are growing in popularity, particularly for those that do not fit the mold of the traditional school setting.

Essentialists often criticize online schools for breaking from tried and true teaching methods. However, more evidence is mounting that new needs in society mean the need to develop new methods of teaching as well. We can no longer rely on methods that were invented before the technological revolution to prepare students for a rapidly changing society. Online schools afford students and teachers an efficient way to combine traditional standards-based teaching with the ability to learn to use new technology.

Special Education and Diversity

The focus of this research has been on standardized testing and how it affects the curriculum. The reason for this focus should be clear by now. Standardized testing has represented the most significant force influencing education for the past several decades. Standardized testing affects the curriculum, and the way the lessons are presented to the student. Both the students and the teachers have incredible stakes dependent upon the results of their test scores. Standardized tests have grown from a tool to be used by the school system, to becoming the school system itself. There are other factors, such as budgets, the ability to find talented staff, and other factors that affect the quality of education in the United States, but all of these are overshadowed by the influence of standardized testing.

One of the key arguments of students centered teaching philosophies is that standardized tests only measure the language differences of students (Evangeline, 2006). This is particularly important for the portion of students in the United States that have difficulties with language. This might be due to a disability or they might simply be from a different cultural background. It is difficult to defend standardized testing based on the needs of populations that might have difficulty with the English language, regardless of the reason.

Standardized tests are largely administered in English. There might be special circumstances where the test is translated for a student, or special assistance is provided, as in the case of a deaf student. However, the main portion of the population must rely on their ability to read and understand written English for their test score. One example of where language difficulties might affect test scores in an unrelated area is in mathematics. It is possible for a student to understand a mathematical process, such as a story problem and still miss the question because they failed to understand the problem as it was written. This is an unfortunate circumstance, but it is not expected to be that uncommon.

All portions of the test depend on the ability to understand the English language. All portions of the test depend on language and a missed question might not be a reflection of the true score in that subject matter, but rather the result of a language related problem. It has been argued that a combination of formal and informal tests would better assess progress in subjects other than language arts. However, informal tests are difficult to score and compare, therefore districts have come to rely on standardized tests only (Evangeline, 2006).

No Child Left Behind" was not written for every child. There are certain segments of the population that were left even further behind by this initiative. This mandate requires standardized testing in math and reading for all students in grades three through eight. There are no exceptions for those that might have mental disabilities that prevent them from understanding the concepts presented on the test. Special needs and culturally diverse students must take the same test as everyone else and be scores in the same manner as the rest of the population. This practice is in line with excellent inclusion philosophies, but it might have the effect of skewing the results of the tests.

Special needs students can have certain accommodations made for them, but they still have to be tested on the same standards. The scoring of these students with the rest of the population is efficient, as no other methods for scoring must be developed. However, the scores of this group of kids skew the results for the rest school. The scores of this group of students might be considerably lower because they are not being tested at their functional level, but rather at the level where they are supposed to be according to the system.

Standardized tests might or might not have an effect on the development of Individual Educational Plans (IEP) for special needs students. In some cases, they may be used to assess strengths and weaknesses as with any other child, but with those that differ significantly from their peers in their functional level, often the standardized test is meaningless. There are obvious gaps in the system and in the standardized tests that fail to account for a significant portion of the student population in the United States.

This gap is a key argument against the use of standardized tests as the sole means of evaluation on any student. This gap is more pronounced in the special needs and culturally diverse population than for the mainstream population. However, there are minor differences in the mainstream population that might affect their tests scores, even though they are considered to be functioning at their appropriate level. This is a key argument against the essentialist and functionalist ideal that places the emphasis on standardized testing, rather than the needs of the student as a whole.

The Role of Student Centered Education

The crux of this research is not against standardized testing and standards-based learning altogether. Without some type of standard for comparison, education in the United States would not be able to guarantee that it met the needs of society. The argument presented by this research is against the current use and emphasis that is being placed on standardized testing. It does not argue that standardized testing is an efficient way to evaluate student and teacher performance. However, it appears that prevailing essentialist philosophy has replaced all other aspects of the school system with standardized testing. The follow will explore how student centered philosophy will produce students that are better prepared to meet the current needs of society.

Oldand (2005) cautions that standardized testing in the earlier grades can be detrimental to the student's self-esteem and future educational success. The primary reason for this is the emphasis on language ability. In the early years, the differences in language ability are more pronounced among individual students than they are, as children grow older. Holding a child back in the earlier grades for failure to pass standardized tests could place them in jeopardy of falling behind in other subjects as well.

No one will argue that reading is essential for success in all areas of life. However, when too much emphasis is placed on one subject, other areas will certainly suffer. Recent trends recognize the need for balance in the educational system and are beginning to focus on the individual student, rather than social norms. They are beginning to integrate ideas of progressivism, social reconstructivism and existentialism into the curriculum. Educators are beginning to realize that test scores do not necessarily equate actual knowledge (Bagamery, Laslik, & Nixon, 2005).

This key is not to replace standardized testing, but rather to make it more friendly to the individual student. The progressivism movement stresses the need for learning that is relevant to the needs of the student and to the needs of society. There are many benefits to progressivist philosophy. One of the key benefits is that it takes into consideration the student's emotional, physical, and intellectual development. When the child enters the job force, they will need all of themselves to complete the task. A student that performed well on standardized tasks, but that is emotionally unfit to bear the stresses and strains of the job will be of little benefit to society. However, the student that has been schooled in such as way that promotes their emotional and intellectual development will bring other skills, such as coping mechanisms to the job. The well-rounded student will be able to adapt and apply new information in a real-world setting, regardless of how they scored on standardized tests.

Social reconstructivism, although more radical than progressivism, concentrates on creativity and self-actualization. Employing this student centered approach builds some of the key qualities of leadership. The self-actualized person is more likely to take on a leadership role than someone who lacks self-esteem. When standardized tests jeopardize self-esteem, then jeopardize the ability of the United States to produce effective leadership for future businesses.

It is not necessary for each student to become a CEO in order for this to be an important concept. Leadership can be displayed, regardless of one's station in life. For instance, the janitor at a school building can display leadership in their enthusiasm for their job and their ability to promote good qualities in students through positive social interaction. A self-actualized society is a more functional society. Students need more than good language arts skills in order to be self-actualized. Self-actualization compliments traditional education. The difficulty in how to integrate it into the daily school schedule.

Existentialism emphasizes the individual, rather than the institution. Existentialist philosophy is built on the idea that everyone has a right to choose their own path. This philosophy would seem counterproductive in the face of education. In a system that depends on standardized tests and the standardization of the individual, it existentialist philosophy would seem counterproductive. According to existentialism in its strictest sense, the student has a choice in whether they wish to participate or not.

It is the fear of the essentialist that students would choose not to participate in school at all and that they would not be interested in performance under their own will. Essentialists do not give the benefit of the doubt to the individual. They tend to make the assumption that a student will not be motivated to learn unless they are coerced. However, coercion seldom leads to motivation. Positive reinforcement is more likely to lead to desired behaviors than threats. Therefore, existentialist philosophies could be considered more in line with modern motivational philosophy than authoritarian systems.