American History 1870–1920: Industry, Labor, and Immigration

Introduction

The years between 1870 and 1920 were a period of astonishing change driven by political, social, and economic upheaval. The United States witnessed sweeping transformations that fundamentally altered the American way of life. The period from 1877 to 1900 in particular saw the rise of the industrial revolution, and the broader era from 1870 to 1920 was one of momentous and dynamic change. These decades set in motion industrial and socio-economic developments that shaped the country for several generations, including industrialization, labor strikes, westward expansion, immigration, urbanization, and the integration of millions of freed African Americans.

Fundamental Changes Between 1870 and 1920

This paper explores the fundamental changes that occurred between 1870 and 1920 and their impacts on American life. It also examines the major labor strikes and massacres of the era and how they affected the American way of life.

The urbanization, growth of cities, and rise of industrial America represented the greatest changes that occurred in the United States between 1870 and 1920. For the first time in American history, wage earners outnumbered the self-employed, and by the 1880s wage earners were predominantly employees of large corporations. During this same period, skilled workers were remarkably productive; however, the relatively high wages they demanded led employers to replace them with semi-skilled and unskilled workers. Many companies also devised mechanization tactics that resulted in deskilling and lower wages. These conditions produced some of the bitterest strikes in American history.

The Pullman Strike of 1894 was the most severe labor conflict of the era. It stood as the central event of the American labor crisis of the 1890s. Richard Schneirov argued that the Pullman Strike continued to be "one of the important watersheds in American history" (p. 3).¹

The 1890s crisis had been building for over a quarter century, fueled by growing socio-political unrest and volatile socioeconomic development. The crisis triggered the financial panic of 1893, which led to a full-blown depression lasting nearly five years. The Pullman Strike was also characterized by spectacular violence and bloodshed reminiscent of the 1886 Haymarket tragedy. In the 1890s, the United States witnessed additional major confrontations, including the

Labor Strikes and Their Impact

"Homestead Steel workers against the Carnegie Corporation, the miners' strikes in the coal mining regions of the East and hard rock states in the West, a longshoremen's strike in New Orleans that united Black and white workers, and numerous railroad strikes" (p. 5).²

Thomas G. Andrews contributed to this analysis by pointing out that the era witnessed a fundamental shift in American history — from economic transformation to labor unrest and conflict.³ Andrews identified the Ludlow Massacre of 1914 as one of the turning-point events in American labor history, in which two children, eleven women, and five men were killed. The massacre of these innocent civilians prompted the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's workers to intensify their strike. In retaliation, the company used company guards, Colorado militiamen, and hired thugs to evict miners and their families from company-owned housing and carry out an assault that resulted in the deaths of 18 striking miners as well as members of their families. Eleven children and four women were burned to death. A subsequent investigation by U.S. authorities revealed that kerosene had been intentionally poured into a tent to set it ablaze and that guards had dug a foxhole from which they shot at anyone attempting to escape.

The nature of these killings made the Ludlow Massacre one of the most significant watershed moments in American labor relations. Andrews argued that it culminated the most violent struggle between labor and corporate power in American history. Labor leaders responded by issuing a call to arms, urging all union members to acquire weapons legally and prepare for guerrilla warfare. Between 700 and 1,000 strikers armed themselves, attacked mines, killed or drove out guards, and set buildings ablaze. The conflict lasted ten days and resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 people. The massacre had a lasting legal impact as well, ultimately influencing far-reaching reforms in American labor relations.

The factors that drove the bitterest strikes of the period were often about changing working rules rather than simply raising wages. The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Pullman Strike of 1894, the Great Upheaval of 1886, and the Homestead Strike of 1892 were among the largest confrontations in American history, each involving violence and the intervention of federal or state governments to suppress the workers. Shelton Stromquist observed that many of these strikes involved mines and railroads because the railroad industry influenced virtually the entire national economy.⁴

Despite these major conflicts, the strikes ultimately had a positive impact on the lives of workers. During this period, American workers fought as fiercely as their counterparts in Europe, though the United States recorded far bloodier fatalities in its labor struggles. Through their efforts, workers were able to win wage increases and improved working conditions that raised their overall standard of living.

Despite the conflicts, the United States underwent profound industrial and socio-economic transformation between 1870 and 1920, including the rise of large corporations, the maturing of the industrial economy, the development of large-scale agriculture, and the intensification of labor and union conflicts.⁵ These changes spurred tremendous technological innovation fueled by rapid economic growth. Mechanization revolutionized agricultural business, and the rise of the American corporation resulted in the concentration of productive capacity in fewer hands. A boom in agricultural production made the United States the world's leading food producer. This industrial revolution and rapid agricultural development, in turn, drove the influx of immigrants between 1877 and 1900.

Conclusion

The period between 1870 and 1920 marked a time of fundamental change in American history, encompassing the industrial revolution, the rise of mechanized agriculture, and an economic boom unlike any the country had previously experienced. The United States also received an unprecedented influx of immigrants from around the world, all seeking economic opportunity. Despite the significant economic and political benefits of this era, the country also endured numerous bloody labor strikes that cost thousands of workers their lives. The Pullman Strike and the Ludlow Massacre stand as the most dramatic examples. Nevertheless, these conflicts drove fundamental reforms in American labor relations, improving the conditions and wages of working people for generations to come.