Ancient Iraq: Mesopotamia's Civilizations and Empires

The Land Between the Rivers

The land where the present-day nation of Iraq lies was once known as Mesopotamia — "the land between the rivers." It is widely considered to be the birthplace of civilization as we know it. The world's very first cities, Uruk and Ur, were established here around 3,500 B.C. in Sumer, which is now known as the southern region of Iraq.

The two rivers that give Mesopotamia its name are the Tigris and Euphrates. While the two rivers provided a water source and thus supplied much of the region with life, they also posed a significant problem to the area's inhabitants. Both rivers had a tendency to flood, which would effectively wipe out large segments of the population. At the same time, the soil surrounding both rivers was incredibly fertile. This attracted settlers from other regions, who came to take advantage of the abundant food supply. Civilization was born in Sumer as a result of the need to govern these growing populations and manage the task of large-scale agricultural production.

Sumerian Religion, Science, and Technology

It is widely believed that many of the Sumerians' inventions — which include writing, the wheel, the plow, and astronomy — were developed in response to the need to adapt to the unpredictable flood cycles of the surrounding rivers. Through their invention of the cuneiform alphabet, the Sumerians were able to pass on agricultural methods to succeeding generations, while simultaneously giving rise to the first known written culture and literature. The Sumerians were a pantheistic people who were deeply religious and believed that the gods made all decisions governing their daily lives. As a result, authority in their culture was given to priests, who managed all social, political, and economic matters, as they were considered the closest earthly representatives of divine authority.

The priests of ancient Sumer devoted much of their time and energy to the study of natural phenomena, which they interpreted as direct communication from the gods. In doing so, they produced some of the earliest scientific inventions and discoveries. It was the Sumerians who determined that there are sixty minutes in every hour, as sixty served as their basic unit of calculation. The Sumerian priests were also responsible for developing the sophisticated irrigation system that would temper the harsh tendencies of the rivers and allow distant Sumerian cities to grow food. As the first cities in Sumer began to grow, technological development accelerated. Since stone was unavailable, the Sumerians built with brick, constructing a variety of remarkable structures suited to their needs.

Warfare, Expansion, and the Empire of Sargon

As kings of rival city-states ruled Sumer during this period, they frequently went to war with one another. For this reason, the Sumerians also engineered important advances in warfare technology, including the wheeled chariot and the discovery of bronze — produced by combining copper and tin.

The second major stage of Sumerian development was marked by the invasion of Sargon the Great, who came to rule all of Mesopotamia. Sargon conquered the first known empire, which extended across Syria and into southeastern Turkey. Among his many accomplishments, he standardized weights and measurements across the disparate lands he ruled, making organized trade possible throughout his kingdom. Sargon was also the first Sumerian king to maintain a standing army for the full duration of his reign. He died in 2279 B.C., but his legacy continued for nearly two hundred years.