Techniques of Five Baroque Painters: Style and Method

Introduction: The Baroque Era and Its Painters

The Baroque era painters, different as they were in terms of personal style, approach, and technique, shared the ability to imbue their works with a dramatic quality much in demand during the period. The Baroque followed on the heels of the High Renaissance, with its humanism and emerging scientifically revolutionary theses. The Protestant Reformation had begun, and religious and political wars were raging throughout Europe. The Baroque style of painting has been linked with the Church's Counter-Reformation — an artistic expression of those mysteries taught by the Church regarding fallen human nature. The word "baroque" means "imperfect pearl" and was applied by later critics who sought to criticize the artistic works of the period for their elaborate, excessively detailed, or highly dramatic compositions. It was precisely for these reasons that the Church supported the Baroque painters: they contrasted with the "rationalism" and "idealism" of the Renaissance that had contributed to the undermining of the Catholic culture that had dominated Europe for centuries. This paper discusses the works of five Baroque painters — Rembrandt van Rijn, Diego Velázquez, Peter Paul Rubens, Caravaggio, and Gerrit van Honthorst — and shows how their specific techniques firmly embedded them in the Baroque era.

Rembrandt van Rijn: Impasto, Chiaroscuro, and Illusionism

Herman Bauer notes that Rembrandt "has an illusionistic effect" as though the viewer were present within the scene that Rembrandt paints (29). This effect is particularly sensed in Rembrandt's Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662), a collective portrait commissioned by the Guild. The work catches the inspectors in the middle of their task, each of them suddenly looking up at someone or something just past the viewer, almost causing the viewer to want to glance over his shoulder to see what it is the inspectors are looking at. It is an example of the Rembrandt style in which the characters in the work become the audience and the audience becomes the subject of the characters' interest. Rembrandt places the viewer at the center of the work by turning the eyes of the officials on him, thus eliminating the barrier between "real space" and "pictorial space" (Bauer 29).

It is evident in Rembrandt's works that he "received," as Seymour Slive states, "decisive impulses from the Caravaggesque style" (18). Caravaggio was the Italian painter who emphasized the subject of his paintings by casting them in light and surrounding them in darkness — a dramatic effect of chiaroscuro at which he excelled. Rembrandt's technique does not rely as heavily upon sharp contrasts of light and darkness, but the chiaroscuro effect is certainly discernible in many of his paintings. As Dutch art was influenced by the Italian masters, this is no surprise. However, the fact that the Dutch audience during the Golden Age was of a different temper than Italian audiences "necessitated alternative" styles which might appeal to the new Dutch middle class (Zuffi 14). In Italy, patrons were typically Churchmen or members of the aristocracy, whose tastes were much more inclined toward embellishment. The Dutch style was characterized by a more objective quality — often called realism — though earlier painters such as Bosch had certainly depicted religious narratives using fantastic imagery. Even his works, however, contain an unmistakably Dutch quality.

Rembrandt's themes were diverse, though he has been characterized as a history painter (Johnson 372). He examined Jewish, Christian, and Dutch lives and stories, focusing on real people rather than idealistic beauty (Fuchs 136), as was common in the earlier Renaissance era. His subjects ranged from himself — whom he painted more frequently than any other artist — to locals, to historical persons, to landscapes and collective portraits. He used the impasto technique with brilliant effect, as though he were sculpting with paint. By layering thick oil paint onto his canvas, Rembrandt could "etch" into the deposit of paint and mold and shape it to convey wrinkles of skin, fabrics, or shadows. His impasto method gave body to his works, allowing them to be more expressive in the areas that he wanted to emphasize. In his Self-Portrait (1659), for instance, the artist's face is illuminated against an otherwise muted backdrop, as if he were employing the relief technique of sculptors to make the face "pop" and stand out more effectively.

In The Jewish Bride (1667), Rembrandt couples thick impasto with thin glazes, making the sleeve of the male figure stand out with a particularly three-dimensional effect. The couple is brought forward from the muted, dark, earthy backdrop, allowing the contrast of the golden colors of their clothing to appear richer and more vibrant. The action of the painting is localized in the placement of the couple's hands and the expressions on their faces — an attitude that is tender, affectionate, loving, and still. The flat background is altered only by the impasto technique used to create the illusion of depth in the dark green foliage of the houseplant behind the couple.

Rembrandt also used chalk in his impastos to give them more body and to add to the translucency of the glazes. As David Bomford notes, Rembrandt's impastos were crafted from particular materials that allowed for the heavy passages he utilized. For example, Rembrandt often used lead white or lead-tin yellow. Lead white was especially useful because as it dries, it does not cause cracking with age but rather keeps the paint firm yet yielding (Bomford 36). This careful attention to the texture of his materials was essential to the development of his method. Just as a sculptor works with clay to mold a subject from a base, so too did Rembrandt seemingly mold his subjects by using denser materials and glazes to give body, volume, flexibility, and a glowing resiliency — all for an illusory effect that drew the audience into the framework. The paint literally reaches out from the canvas, and the eyes of lifelike faces look at the viewer or just past him with an inviting or inquisitive stare.

Rembrandt's technique commands the viewer's attention because it creates a three-dimensional effect with a two-dimensional medium. He borrows from the chiaroscuro method of the Italians but builds upon it quite literally, as an architect builds upon a foundation. The play of shadow and light is present in a Rembrandt work, but the use of impasto adds a further dimension of reality, allowing the work to reach out to the audience while permitting the artist to etch into, scratch, lift, and sculpt the oil pigments. The ultimate purpose of this technique is to capture some spirit in the human actions conveyed — some aspect of humanity or of the age, of time and place — that speaks to the human soul. This is evident in the illuminated faces, features, dress, and settings of Rembrandt's paintings, which express sadness, awe, joy, melancholy, and much more.

Caravaggio: Tenebrism, Naturalism, and Dramatic Light

Caravaggio's technique of tenebrism — seeming to throw a spotlight onto the area of the painting where he wants the viewer's eyes to rest — is used to great effect throughout his works. The naturalistic character of this style spread throughout all of Europe, exemplifying the kind of artwork that the Counter-Reformation supported during the Baroque era. Caravaggio's technique was exceptionally naturalistic, yet also dynamic and dramatic thanks to the chiaroscuro and tenebrism he adopted so effectively.

His style was based partly on his ability to paint quickly using real-life models recruited from local streets. Rather than painting in an idealized manner to create an effect of beauty and harmony, Caravaggio effected the Baroque manner by treating his subjects with a realistic eye for detail. His "vigorous" method of painting realistically, yet with an eye for dramatic effect, is what helped make the Baroque era so lifelike and animated (Slive 7). The emphasis was not so much on perfection of form as on the accurate representation of mood, subject, theme, and reality. The deep and penetrating questions of the time — whether religious, political, or social — were felt in the Baroque style, and Caravaggio's technique helped lay its foundation. His method was spontaneous yet thoughtful, and like Rembrandt and Velázquez, who were influenced by him, it served a greater thematic purpose: to draw attention to a particular feature or action within the painting by using the play of light and shadow and the forces of contrast.

Caravaggio's naturalist aim was a departure from the popular Mannerist method of the High Renaissance that preceded it. The Musicians (1595) is of particular note for the subject it represents — Italian youths practicing music. As part of the Counter-Reformation, the Church was advocating a musical rebirth, and this scene depicts a common sight: youths practicing the lute with simple, natural expressions.

His Basket of Fruit (1595) reflects the same tendency toward naturalism. The fruit is not in pristine condition whatsoever: the apple has wormholes, the leaves are dried and wilted, and the figs are splitting. This possibly carries a loaded meaning: it signifies the natural end of all things — death and decay. It also represents Caravaggio's technique of acting as a recorder of life. Most importantly, the subject is not glorified or idealized but rather in the midst of action — for in still life, the action is all too apparent: the fruit is beginning to rot.

Caravaggio's Judith Beheading Holofernes (1598) is a much more dramatic example of his technique, coupling naturalism with religious narrative and using tenebrism and chiaroscuro to guide the viewer's eyes to particular details. Judith is illuminated as the heroine of the history, while her servant beside her is partly cast in shadow and is noticeably aged, contrasting with the young and beautiful Judith, whose expression is concentrated and determined. Holofernes is also cast partly in shadow as he is being decapitated. The scene captures Judith midway through the act, his eyes rolling back and his mouth agape in surprise. Blood spurts downward and to the left as the servant readies the sack for the severed head. Judith seems to pull back from the violence as though she finds it detestable even if it is necessary. The grim, ancient face of her servant, on the other hand, reflects worldly wisdom and approval as well as a fascination for the horror at hand. The background is cloaked in darkness, giving the scene a stark and brilliantly illuminative effect, with Judith's white blouse and creamy features standing out sharply against the shadowy backdrop.

The sheen Caravaggio achieves is said to have been produced by the application of "a thin layer of tempera" over the oil, giving the surface a subtle gloss in order to capture and retain light (Gash 104). Because of his spontaneous way of working, he often used a "scoring" method of preparation — scratching the details of the composition directly into the primary coating rather than drawing or sketching them onto the canvas. These lines are still visible in some of his paintings, such as The Flagellation of Christ (1606), which is characteristically shrouded in shadow, with Christ illuminated from the front and His attackers reaching out of the shadows behind Him.

Caravaggio also employed a "sprezzato" technique, exemplified by "rapid, cursory" strokes that would later be utilized by the Impressionist painters centuries later. This technique allowed him to cultivate a simpler form of expression that remained true to his naturalistic aim (Gregori 310). Rapid scoring with the blunt end of his brush provided the rough outline he needed to fill in with paint. This technique was criticized for being flawed and unsophisticated, but it served his purpose: to bring something fresh, spur-of-the-moment, and intimate to the canvas, as though the action were unfolding before the viewer's eyes. His Supper at Emmaus (1601) depicts a Christ whose face is full and whose body casts a dark shadow across the wall behind him, as the host and guests marvel at Christ's words. The painting does not appear hurried, yet its sense of urgency is felt everywhere one looks.

Conveying this sense of urgency is part of what makes Caravaggio unique among Baroque painters. His paintings are typically characterized by sharp contrasts between dark backdrops and illuminated characters, so that sometimes half of what is painted is shrouded in mystery while the other half is brilliantly lit as though a spotlight shines on that spot alone. This is evident in St. Jerome (1605), where the aged Jerome sits bald-headed, long-bearded, and stooped over his Bible as he translates it into the Vulgate. His halo floats above his head and contrasts sharply with the black backdrop that half-swallows it. It is a stylistic technique of Caravaggio that makes his paintings easily identifiable, as no other painter used the chiaroscuro method so starkly while still applying such smooth, seamless transitions between characters and space. If Rembrandt built up his canvas with impasto acting like relief in a sculpture, Caravaggio's canvases are comparatively flat — yet deep and full of life, light, and shadow.

Conclusion: The Baroque Sensibility

The Baroque artists presented in this paper used the popular techniques of the time period to produce works of art that varied and differed in significant ways, yet which told a story of the Baroque fascination with human nature, realism, and naturalism. Rembrandt relied on the Caravaggio technique of chiaroscuro, as did many of the others, but his calling card was the heavy impasto technique, which allowed him to essentially carve and sculpt his paintings in order to produce the required visual effect. Caravaggio's technique was more dramatic and more focused on reproducing sharply contrasting scenes of darkness and light, framing characters in totally black backdrops for the ultimate tenebrism. Velázquez concentrated more on tonality and the translucent effect, completing mature works in which colors are harmonized and backgrounds are visible and serve as commentary on the foreground action. Rubens combined the layering of translucent colors with impasto passages to produce surprising works that leapt off the panel or canvas. Honthorst turned the dramatic Caravaggio style into a festive, happy method when painting musicians, and into a more richly realistic and naturalist method when using the candlelight motif — by placing the source of light directly within the composition. In this manner, each painter contributed to the overall direction of the Baroque sensibility: a more natural and true style, delivered by a technique that was experimental, spontaneous, and effective.

Works Cited

Bauer, Herman. Baroque. Cologne, Germany: Taschen, 2006. Print.

Bomford, David. Art in the Making: Rembrandt. CT: Yale University Press, 2006. Print.

Brown, Jon. Painting in Spain: 1500–1700. CT: Yale University Press, 1998. Print.

Brown, Jonathan. Velazquez: The Technique of Genius. CT: Yale University Press, 1998. Print.

Bruce-Gardiner, Robert. "Rubens's Landscape by Moonlight." The Burlington Magazine, vol. 130, no. 1025 (1988): 579–596.

Buck, Richard. "Rubens's The Gerbier Family: Examination and Treatment." Studies in the History of Art (1973): 32–53.

Bussagli, Marco, and Mattia Reiche. Baroque and Rococo. NY: Sterling, 2009. Print.

Fuchs, R. H. Rembrandt in Amsterdam. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, 1969. Print.

Gash, John. Caravaggio. UK: Chaucer Press, 2003. Print.

Gregori, Mina. The Age of Caravaggio. NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1985. Print.

Gudiol, Jose. Velazquez, 1599–1660. NY: Viking Press, 1974. Print.

Hagen, Rose-Marie. What Great Paintings Say. CA: Taschen, 2003. Print.

Hoogewerff, Godefridus. Gerrit van Honthorst: Twenty-Eight Reproductions. Hague: Naeff, 1924. Print.

Johnson, Paul. Art. NY: HarperCollins, 2003. Print.

Judson, Jay. Gerrit van Honthorst. Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1956. Print.

Maroger, Jacques. The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters. NY: Hacker Art Books, 1979. Print.

Marucci, Roberto. Flemish Master and Other Artists. Rome: Brentschneider, 2008. Print.

Perez, Javier. The Spanish Portrait: From El Greco to Picasso. Madrid: Museo Nacional del Prado, 2004. Print.

Plesters, Joyce. "Samson and Delilah: Rubens and the Art and Craft of Painting on Panel." National Gallery Technical Bulletin, vol. 7 (1983): 30–49. Print.

Sanchez, Alfonso. Velazquez. NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1990. Print.

Saunders, Linnaea. "A Rubens Portrait Re-examined." AIC Paintings Postprints, vol. 18 (2005): 76–83. Print.

Serullaz, Maurice. Velazquez. NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1981. Print.

Slive, Seymour. Dutch Painting, 1600–1800. CT: Yale University Press, 1996. Print.

Viardot, Louis. An Illustrated History of Painters of All Schools. London: Samson Low, 1877. Print.

Zuffi, Stefano. Rembrandt. UK: Dorling Kindersley, 1999. Print.