Battle of Tours 732: Charles Martel Stops Muslim Conquest

Introduction: The Muslim Advance into Europe

In 711 AD, forces of the Muslim world crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, which separated Africa from Europe, and invaded the Visigothic kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula — modern-day Spain. In less than a decade, Muslim forces had conquered the peninsula and were sending raiders across the Pyrenees into France. Using a rebellion in northern Spain as a pretext, Abd-er Rahman then invaded the Frankish realm. In response, the Frankish leader Charles led a force of Franks to intercept the invaders, meeting them near the city of Poitiers. In the battle that followed, Charles defeated the Muslim forces, killed their leader Abd-er Rahman, and drove the Muslims back across the Pyrenees into Spain. As a result of the battle, Charles earned the name "Martel," meaning "hammer," halted the Muslim conquest of Europe, and preserved the Christian world.

Origins of the Conflict and the Road to Tours

The Battle of Tours had its roots in a web of regional alliances and rivalries. In 730, the Duke of Aquitaine, Odo — a semi-independent ruler in southern France — allied with a Muslim leader who governed an area of northern Spain. When that local Muslim ruler, Uthman ibn Naissa, rebelled against Abd-er Rahman, the overlord of all Muslim Spain, Abd-er Rahman punished Uthman by invading his territory. He then continued his attack in 732 against the Duke of Aquitaine, who immediately called on Charles for aid.

Charles, leader of the Franks, answered the call and assembled his forces — estimated at somewhere between 15,000 and 75,000 men — at a location that would favor his army, which was composed primarily of infantry. The spot he chose was near the city of Tours along the river Loire, where he formed his men into large defensive formations called phalanxes and waited for the Muslims to attack. Abd-er Rahman commanded a force estimated at between 60,000 and 400,000 men, comprising a large proportion of heavy cavalry equipped with the newly introduced stirrup. Although several chronicles from both the Christian and Muslim sides describe the battle, the exact numbers involved are very difficult to determine. Most historians therefore assume the real figures were closer to the lower end of the range. For six days, "the two great hosts of the two languages and the two creeds were set in array against each other" (Creasy, 2003, Chapter 7).

The Seven-Day Standoff and the Battle

For six days neither army moved to attack. The Franks, relying heavily on infantry, needed to fight defensively, while the Muslims, with their preponderance of cavalry, "wanted the Franks to come out into the open" ("Battle of Tours"). However, winter was approaching, Abd-er Rahman's supply lines were stretched, and his army was already burdened with plunder, so he concluded he could wait no longer. On the seventh day the Muslim forces attacked, unleashing their heavy cavalry against the blocks of Frankish infantry.

The Franks held their ground. Although the Muslims achieved a few breakthroughs, the Frankish formations quickly closed and maintained their positions. Because Charles had positioned his army on a hill with forests on both flanks, the Muslim cavalry's advantage was largely neutralized. Charles then sent a small force to outflank the enemy and strike their baggage train, where the vast quantity of booty collected during weeks of plundering was held.