Child Labour 1880–1920: Annotated Bibliography

Introduction

This annotated bibliography explores child labour in the United States from 1880 to 1920, drawing on primary and secondary sources that document working conditions, key strikes, and the reform efforts that shaped American labour law.

Part One: Annotated Sources

Paterson, K. (2006). Bread and roses, too. New York: Clarion Books.

This book is a secondary source — a children's historical novel that depicts the 1912 Lawrence Strike (also known as "Bread and Roses") from the perspective of two children: Rosa Serutti and Jake Beale. Born to Italian parents, Rosa attends school while her mother and sister work at a mill in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Even though they work in the mill, Rosa's family cannot afford the clothes they make. Rosa is portrayed as the protector of Beale, who also works in the mills and lives on the streets to avoid his abusive father. Written by an award-winning author, the novel chronicles one of the most infamous strikes in U.S. history. The strike was the first in the country to be organised by women, with immigrants from 25 different nationalities participating. Paterson's historical novel brings to light the origins and outcomes of the strike, which left an important mark on the history of child labour in the United States.

Jeffries, M. (2007). U.S. child labour, 1908–1920. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tY1gk6J6zc

This film provides a primary account of child labour in the U.S. during the early 20th century as depicted through Lewis W. Hine's photography. The film specifically documents the quest by American society to achieve socioeconomic advancement at the expense of children and populations in lower social classes. In the struggle for a better life, children and adults — mainly from poor and immigrant communities — participated in extremely dangerous jobs at mills and factories, exposing them to injuries and even death. This occurred despite the existence of laws prohibiting child labour in many states across the country, and attempts to amend the U.S. Constitution achieved no result. Hine's photography was instrumental in ending child labour in the U.S. His efforts contributed to the enactment of more stringent child labour laws, notably the Fair Labour Standards Act legislated by Congress in 1938.

Watson, B. (2006). Bread and Roses: mills, migrants, and the struggle for the American Dream. U.S.: Penguin Publishing.

Watson's book also provides a secondary account of the 1912 Lawrence Strike. Drawing on oral and printed accounts, Watson documents how thousands of immigrant workers representing dozens of nationalities endured inhumane working conditions at Lawrence's textile factories. Led by prominent figures such as Big Bill Haywood and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, the workers organised a massive protest that led to the closure of the factories. A central theme in Watson's book is the unity displayed by immigrant workers, who came together to fight against child labour and poor working conditions. On the whole, Watson's book offers a fairly comprehensive account of how an infamous industrial strike shaped the labour movement in the U.S. The decades following the strike were marked by stricter regulations on child labour and minimum wage.

Hine, L. (n.d.). Child labour in America 1908–1912. Retrieved from: http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/childlabor/

This website provides a primary account of child labour in the U.S., focusing specifically on the period 1908–1912. The website presents images taken by photographer Lewis Hine, who was working for the National Child Labour Committee (NCLC) at the time. The images portray children as young as nine years old working in mills, factories, mines, and farms under unimaginable conditions. They endured horrific and life-threatening circumstances, including climbing on spinning machines, working at night, verbal assault, physical violence, and work-related illnesses such as pneumonia. The children could not attend school because they worked constantly. Hine's photography allows the viewer to gain a first-hand understanding of child labour in the U.S. during the first few decades of the 20th century, making it a valuable resource for the history of child labour in the country.

Robbins, M. (2012). Bread, roses, and other possibilities: the 1912 Lawrence Textile Strike in historical memory. Historical Journal of Massachusetts, 94–121.

Authored by a labour historian, this article further demonstrates the significance of the 1912 Lawrence Strike in shaping the labour movement in the U.S. and scholarly work in the field over nearly a century. Robbins specifically considers how the event has attracted different meanings over the course of approximately 100 years, lending "itself to new methodologies of historical inquiry" (Robbins, 2012, p. 94). According to the author, the strike carried several meanings, particularly because of the diversity of its participants. For some, it was about affording basic needs such as food; for others, it was not simply about economic needs but also about respect for the wellbeing of employees. In addition, some viewed the strike through the lens of working-class solidarity, while others saw it as an ideological vehicle. Robbins's article introduces an interesting perspective by demonstrating that the strike was motivated by broader aspirations beyond the issue of child labour alone.

Hine, L. (n.d.). Child labour in America 1908–1912. Retrieved from: http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/childlabor/

Jeffries, M. (2007). U.S. child labour, 1908–1920. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tY1gk6J6zc

Paterson, K. (2006). Bread and Roses, too. New York: Clarion Books.

Robbins, M. (2012). Bread, roses, and other possibilities: the 1912 Lawrence Textile Strike in historical memory. Historical Journal of Massachusetts, 94–121.

Watson, B. (2006). Bread and Roses: mills, migrants, and the struggle for the American Dream. U.S.: Penguin Publishing.