Political Power in China: Shang Dynasty to Western Han

Introduction: History and Political Authority in Ancient China

China has seen a number of changes in terms of history and power over the centuries. It is instructive to examine the changing nature of political authority and explore the relationship between history and power from the Shang Dynasty to the Western Han.

China's history has been documented in a number of ancient writings. Centuries of migration, amalgamation, and development brought about a distinctive system of writing, philosophy, art, and political organization that came to be recognized as Chinese civilization (Shinn, 1991). The fact that this civilization has continued for over 4,000 years gives it a unique position in world history.

Until the twentieth century, members of the ruling scholar-official class were responsible for documenting China's history, which was "meant to provide the ruler with precedents to guide or justify his policies. These accounts focused on dynastic politics and colorful court histories and included developments among the commoners only as backdrops" (Shinn, 1991). The Chinese political pattern of dynasties was a cycle of "ascent, achievement, decay, and rebirth under a new family" (Shinn, 1991).

The Shang Dynasty

Until the nineteenth century, the Chinese people held an undisturbed, China-centered view of the world. However, "superior Western weaponry and technology and imminent territorial dismemberment forced China to reassess its position with respect to Western civilization" (Shinn, 1991). The 2,000-year-old dynastic system of imperial government fell in 1911 when China proved unable to adjust to these changes effectively.

The Shang Dynasty was founded when the last Xia ruler was overthrown by a rebel leader. It was based on agriculture, hunting, and animal husbandry. During this period, two major developments occurred: "the development of a writing system and the use of bronze metallurgy. Ceremonial bronze vessels with inscriptions attested to the workmanship and high level of civilization" (Shinn, 1991).

The Xia cast bronze tripods bearing images of animals on them "so that living people would realize which animals were helping people to cross from earth to heaven and which animals were unhelpful and even harmful." These images were not shamanistic in commonly understood terms, nor were they associated with Daoist knowledge of spirit life and movement. Nine administrative districts each presented their best commodities to Great Yu as a gesture of gratitude for taming the floods of their lands. Great Yu created nine tripods from the bronze he received, each carved with rare and precious animals, which became a symbol of rule over the nine districts. Later during this dynasty, the tripods were decreed to "be handed down as national treasures from generation to generation" and became a symbol of state power.

The capitals were the center of court life, where highly developed rituals were performed to appease spirits and to honor revered ancestors. The king held a high secular position and was the "head of the ancestor- and spirit-worship cult" (Shinn, 1991).

The ancient capital city of the Shang Dynasty was located in Henan Province, central China, near the Yin Ruins. Anyang City, which existed over 3,300 years ago, was the "largest of the Shang Dynasty (16th–11th century BC), covering more than four million square meters." The last capital city of the Shang Dynasty was the Yin Xu Ruins; however, the larger city provides greater insight into the history and culture of ancient China.

The ancient city contained "tombs, houses, wells, pottery and bronze ware. Some inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells, China's earliest written characters, were discovered in the city" (Xinhua News Agency, 2000). These bones, known as oracle bones, "were used for divination by kings of the Shang Dynasty. Oracle bone inscriptions were like the cuneiform writing of the ancient Near East and the hieroglyphic writing of ancient Egypt" (Xinhua News Agency, 2002). Some inscriptions also carried vermilion, a bright red mercuric sulfide used as a pigment.

Forms of these early inscriptions continue to be used by one quarter of the world's population today.

Daoism, or the study of nature's patterns, has existed since the earliest Chinese eras. Historians and scholars dispute the claim that "these ideas did not evolve with time like human beings are supposed to have, but that they sprung, full-formed, in a culture that long preceded the historical land of 'China,' even the early China that scratched their versions of these earlier ideas into the famous 'oracle bones.'" Feudal governments in North China, which existed during the era of the oracle bones, were distinct from the original Daoists. During this era, fortune-telling was popular among kings and queens, and their court sorcerers were steeped in esoteric knowledge.

The Zhou Dynasty came to power when a ruler from a frontier tribe overthrew the last Shang ruler and established Hao as the capital city. The early Zhou rulers utilized the language and culture of the Shang to conquer, colonize, and extend their reach north of the Chang Jiang, or Yangtze River, in the region known as China Proper. The Zhou lasted from 1027 to 221 BC, making it the longest dynasty in China's history.

Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties

The doctrine of the "mandate of heaven" — the notion that "the ruler governed by divine right but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate" — was articulated by philosophers during this period. This doctrine "explained and justified the demise of the two earlier dynasties and at the same time supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers."

The Zhou's initial decentralized rule has been compared with feudal rule in Europe; however, the Zhou system was "proto-feudal, being a more sophisticated version of the earlier tribal organization, in which effective control depended more on familial ties than on feudal legal bonds." The mixture of city-states eventually became centralized, strengthening political and economic traditions. The changes of the latter Zhou era "were manifested in greater central control over local governments and a more routinized agricultural taxation."

Barbarians invaded the Zhou court and killed the king in 771 BC, prompting the relocation of the capital to Luoyang. This move led historians "to divide the Zhou era into Western Zhou (1027–771 BC) and Eastern Zhou (770–221 BC). With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished and the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated." The Eastern Zhou Dynasty was divided into two sub-periods: the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC).

In 221 BC, China Proper was unified, and "the western frontier state of Qin, the most aggressive of the Warring States, subjugated the last of its rival states" (Shinn, 1991). It is believed that the English word "China" was derived from "Ch'in," which is Qin in Wade-Giles Romanization (Shinn, 1991). The king of Qin consolidated his power, took the title Shi Huangdi, or First Emperor — "a formulation previously reserved for deities and the mythological sage-emperors" — and imposed Qin's centralized, non-hereditary bureaucratic system on his new empire (Shinn, 1991).

When the Qin kings conquered the six major states of the Eastern Zhou, they had relied on the resources of Legalist scholar-advisers. The ruthlessly achieved centralization focused on "standardizing legal codes and bureaucratic procedures, the forms of writing and coinage, and the pattern of thought and scholarship" (Shinn, 1991). The kings executed or exiled rebellious Confucian scholars and destroyed their books in an effort to suppress criticism of imperial rule. The warring states had built walls that were subsequently connected to prevent barbarian incursion; this structure became known as the Great Wall, stretching approximately 5,000 kilometers. The Great Wall is "actually four great walls rebuilt or extended during the Western Han, Sui, Jin, and Ming periods, rather than a single continuous wall" (Shinn, 1991).

Although the Qin Dynasty lasted less than twenty years, it established the imperial system that would develop over the next 2,000 years.

Conclusion

Unknown. "More Oracle Bones Unearthed in Central China." Xinhua News Agency, July 29, 2002.

Vermilion. Britannica: Vermilion. Accessed October 6, 2003.