Evolution of Christian Church Architecture: Early to Orthodox

Introduction

Over the course of a thousand years, the architecture of early Christian churches underwent a remarkable evolution — from modest gathering spaces to the basilicas and cathedrals that remain standing today. To determine how and why this transformation occurred, this paper reviews the relevant literature, identifying specific examples of church architecture to demonstrate the gradual changes that took place from the earliest Christians (in the 1st–6th centuries CE) to the architecture of the modern Greek (or Eastern) Orthodox Christian church. An analysis of the transition of Greek Orthodox churches into a cruciform plan and its rationale is followed by a discussion of the major structures that contributed to this evolution, including St. Peter's Basilica, the Hagia Sophia, and others. Finally, the paper considers the religious and societal forces that shaped this particular building form before summarizing the research in the conclusion.

Fortunately, many of the early Christian churches of Europe have well-documented histories that help modern scholars understand the methods used in their construction and the ways in which they were altered over time. The determination of what types of changes occurred — and why — based on religious influences and broader contemporary society is a critical element of this analysis (Stollard). As Stollard notes, "What is less frequently considered, however, are the reasons why they were built in the way they were, and how they were intended to be used. An appreciation of the social history of the period is often the essential key to understanding the architectural development" (15).

Early Christian Architecture: First Through Sixth Centuries

Rather than a unified religion, the first through the sixth centuries were a developmental period for Christianity, with numerous sects and cults practicing their own versions of the faith (Stollard). Not surprisingly, the architecture used for these very early churches differed in substantive ways, including in size, artistic decoration, and function (Stollard). During this early period, existing pagan buildings were sometimes simply converted into early Christian churches with little or no alteration to their architecture (Taylor). In other cases, demolished statues and other scavenged materials from pagan buildings were repurposed as building materials for new Christian churches (Hodges).

Notwithstanding these differences, early Christian churches still reflected the Christian faith in various ways. For instance, architectural design during this period was based on important events in the life of Christ: "The resurrection of Christ occurred on the eighth day after he entered Jerusalem. Baptisteries of the early Christian churches were octagonal" ("Introduction: The Historical Background" 331).

By the fourth century CE, more formal architectural elements began to characterize Christian churches. Basilicas, for example, were an attempt by early Christian architects to reflect the Kingdom of Heaven on earth (MacDonald). By the late fourth century CE, Emperor Constantine commissioned some of the first basilicas, and their resemblance to the Christian cross became increasingly pronounced (Veyne). According to MacDonald, "These enveloping, seamless vaulted forms were peculiarly suited to Christian memorials, baptisteries, and shrines. They traced revolving imitations of the cosmos with expanses of modeled surfaces so fluidly interconnected as to conjure away their material reality" (16). As a reflection of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth, basilicas also provided early Christians with the interior spaces needed to commemorate and celebrate Christ. MacDonald adds that these architectural forms "stated direct lines of force and connection from centered, hallowed ceremonial spots below to made heavens above" (16).

The resemblance of the basilican form to a cross became more evident during this period. According to Curran, "The interior of the basilica was divided longitudinally into four aisles and a nave. Though in ground plan these early churches appear to be cross-shaped, they had no transepts like those that later developed at Saint Peter's Basilica" (96). Saint Peter's Basilica and other early Christian churches were based on the basilican form; however, Roth notes that further changes were required to accommodate the special requirements of Christian worship. As Roth reports, "In particular, at the end of the nave was added an entrance vestibule, or narthex, and beyond that a large atrium ringed with colonnades, where the unbaptized withdrew during the Mass of the Faithful. At Saint Peter's, entrance to the atrium was through an imposing propylon or gate. Including the narthex and atrium, the total length of Saint Peter's was 669 feet (203.9 meters) from transept to propylon" (245).

The Basilican Form and Its Symbolic Significance

The earlier architectural forms, however, failed to provide sufficient ceremonial space for the increasing numbers of Christian congregants, and they did not accommodate the processional axes regarded as important elements in worship. Even so, they were influential in future developments of Christian architecture (MacDonald). As MacDonald explains, "Their symbolic significance and their memorial associations were so important that ways were sought to combine them with congregational and processional buildings, and in early Christian architecture a number of attempts were made to marry the horizontal shed with the verticalized pavilion" (16).

Over time, as building methods improved and new approaches to load-bearing were developed, architects were able to introduce more spacious interiors that provided more room for congregants and more accurately reflected the heavenly attributes they sought to express. According to MacDonald, "In some cases the walls all but disappeared, and the vertical elements formed pierced, almost skeletal frames carrying vaults above. These structures were of square, circular, or polygonal plan, with a vault or tent-shaped roof of timber resting on piers or columns disposed about a central vertical axis" (16). Because these building methods proved so effective, they were also highly influential on future Christian architecture. MacDonald concludes that, "In contrast to the horizontal basilican form, they made a presence about a specific spot, and while in the process of development and experiment, passed into the world of Christian architecture" (16).

In what would ultimately become the traditional cruciform plan, this transformation involved modifying existing models to more accurately reflect the shape of a cross. According to MacDonald, "Apses and sanctuaries were lengthened in order to pull horizontal axes under and past the vertical axes of vaulted, centralized buildings, pavilion units were inserted into basilicas, and cross forms of various kinds were tried; ultimately, the problem was solved in Hagia Sophia" (16).

By the sixth century CE, the foundations for the primary architectural forms of medieval Byzantine churches had largely been established (Nickel). According to Nickel, "In the Middle Ages, the principal church of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia (532–537), was the largest church in the Christian world and was regarded as a symbol of both secular and religious power" (25). The two architects of the Hagia Sophia, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, incorporated both centrally planned and basilican elements into the structure (Nickel).

The technical achievements of Anthemius and Isidorus remain a source of wonder and admiration to the present day. As Nickel notes, "The piers inside the church are so skillfully embedded in the walls at the corners that the mighty central dome, with its diameter of 32 metres, appears to be floating freely in space above the nave of the church" (25). Other architectural features were incorporated into the design to help create this sense of etherealness: "This illusion is further reinforced by the presence of a ring of windows at the base of the dome. While the aisles flanking the nave were divided by arcades, half-domes surmounted the spaces to the west and east" (Nickel 25).

Far more attention was paid to the interior of the Hagia Sophia than to its exterior, even though the structure's exterior is aesthetically pleasing. As Nickel observes, "All the walls were decorated with marble inlay, mosaics and carved ornaments, further strengthening the unreal, illusionist impression of the interior. In contrast, the exterior was almost undecorated" (25). Another significant church built contemporaneously with the Hagia Sophia was the cruciform Church of the Holy Apostles (536–546), which featured five domes (Nickel).

Conclusion

The research showed that the modern Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Christian church evolved over the course of the millennia based on innovations in building methods as well as in response to the religious needs of the faithful. From their early beginnings as fairly simple structures or converted pagan temples, early Christian churches were efforts to provide for these religious needs while also reflecting the architects' perceptions of a heavenly kingdom on earth in architectural form. The research also showed that the ultimate transformation from these early church structures to the conventional cruciform shape was the result of the resemblance to a cross, which inspired Christian architects to incorporate the requisite design elements to complete that shape in full. Having established this form and the corresponding symbolism associated with its constituent design elements, the cruciform church remained a popular building style for centuries, and a number of modern churches around the world still conform to this shape for many of the same reasons.