Coaching as an HRD Tool: Models, Benefits, and Strategies

Introduction to HRM and HRD

In the rapidly changing world of business, organizations must learn to adapt quickly to changes occurring in both the business environment and the broader technological landscape — not just to produce high-quality products but also to develop innovative ones in order to maintain a competitive position in the international marketplace. This requires strategic planning, prediction of demographic and economic trends, career planning, employee welfare, and the training and development of employees. Thus, human resource management developed more as an investment made to align business strategies with human capabilities in order to achieve organizational goals. The advantage gained is two-sided, as employees also benefit by receiving opportunities for skill development, higher learning, career advancement, and increased remuneration.

Human Resource Management (HRM) encompasses a wide range of activities including recruitment, staff planning, industrial relations (i.e., relations with trade unions), and training and development. Human Resource Development (HRD) is a component of an organization's HRM activities and concerns itself with helping employees realize their full work potential. (Hargreaves & Jarvis, 1998)

According to Chalofsky (1992), human resource development can be defined as the "study and practice of increasing the learning capacity" not just of employees but also of organizations and various collectives, through the "development and application of learning-based interventions for the purpose of optimizing human and organizational growth and effectiveness." However, some experts have stressed the inclusion of methodical "learning experiences in a definite time period," whereas others have highlighted the importance of "a long-term, work-related learning" and the combining of career development and organizational development — in addition to employee training and development — within the definition of HRD. Despite the many definitions available, there is no single unanimously accepted definition of HRD. (Wilson, 2005) The diversity in these definitions may result from differences in underlying theories, which range from economic to psychological and philosophical perspectives.

Historical Development of HRD

The term Human Resource Development was first introduced by Leonard Nadler at the Miami Conference of the American Society of Training and Development in 1969. As a field of practice, HRD is long-standing and established, but as an academic discipline it is relatively young. (Wilson, 2005; Swanson, Holton, & Holton, 2001) Study of the history of HRD shows that learning, training, and the overall development of an organization are largely outcomes of economic and social conditions. The early history of humankind reveals that even ordinary intellectual developments arose out of a necessity to adjust to a demanding physical and social environment, and that the level of knowledge and training required for human advancement was very slow to emerge. (Swanson et al., 2001)

The ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome recognized the importance of education as an instrument for personal development and achievement, yet they held a dismissive attitude toward menial labor and did not develop formal training in the manual arts. The Romans, being a more practical people, placed greater importance on developing manual skills through family apprenticeship. With the spread of Christianity in the medieval ages, the laboring class was increasingly embraced into the mainstream. Trades and skills — including the professions of medicine and law — became more specialized, and the transmission of practical and technical expertise from one generation to another via apprenticeship grew more prevalent. The apprenticeship system involved three stages: apprentice, journeyman, and master. Gradually, associations such as merchant and craft guilds emerged, protecting mutual needs and benefits and later providing education and training for their members' children. (Swanson et al., 2001)

The Protestant Reformation, the use of vernacular in writing, and the development of printing technology paved the way for broader access to education and training beyond the wealthy classes. The Renaissance ushered in new philosophical and scientific thinking. Eminent figures such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, Martin Luther, and John Locke had a profound influence on the progress of technical training in different ways. With the emergence of the United States, the apprenticeship system became a key factor in the advancement of individuals and the economy. As the industrial period began, however, the apprenticeship system started declining and entrepreneurship grew. Industrial advances required different kinds of training for workers handling new machinery and technologies. Training and corporation schools — such as mechanics' schools — gradually gained prominence. Corporation schools were company-sponsored programs for employee training, serving as a precursor to HRD. (Swanson et al., 2001)

Corporation schools were established by companies such as Ford, General Electric, and Goodyear. Subsequently, governments also became involved in providing technical training through legislation such as the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. With further industrialization, the implementation of scientific management principles, and the development of mass production, companies began to feel the necessity of achieving production efficiency through relevant skills development. Just before World War II, the concept of Training Within Industry (TWI) emerged. TWI included four programs: Job Instruction, Job Methods, Job Relations, and Program Development. These four programs laid the foundations for the chief components of present-day HRD — human relations, performance, and quality. TWI Service clearly distinguished between education and training: the former is intended for the all-round development of a person and the benefit of society, whereas the latter is specifically aimed at equipping workers with the skills required to solve production problems and improve organizational performance. (Swanson et al., 2001)

Much of the methods and philosophy behind the organizational development component of HRD developed between 1940 and 1950. Theorists such as Chester Barnard, Mary Parker Follett, Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Malcolm Knowles shaped much of the present-day philosophy behind HRD. Today's flatter and downsized organizational structures, combined with the rapidly changing nature of work, mean that employees must develop skills across a wider range of tasks. (Swanson et al., 2001) This has resulted in the inclusion of a dedicated HRD division within HRM departments to keep employees current with organizational needs. It has been observed that increasing the level of employee expertise through HRD raises the likelihood of organizational objectives being achieved. (Swanson, 1995)

Human resource development is involved in three key areas: organizational, occupational, and individual development. Individual development involves skill development, career development, and interpersonal skills. Development at the occupational and group level may require training to integrate cross-functional teams through team-building exercises, or specific courses educating workers about particular services or products. Organizational development involves educating workers about processes or techniques that involve the entire organization — for instance, introducing new ways of working or a new culture would require training and development across the whole organization, not just a single employee or department. (Wilson, 2005) Whereas HRD or training managers had traditionally focused on arranging in-house courses and ensuring employees attended external ones, a restricted training budget and limited facilities made this difficult to manage. A systematic on-the-job training approach has therefore proved far more effective. This may involve coaching, job rotation, and work-based projects — all of which can provide a level of training that classroom-based learning cannot hope to match. (Reid, Barrington, Brown, & Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2004)

A number of studies have shown that many organizations have adopted coaching and mentoring as personal development tools. Coaching usually begins after a worker has received basic employee training, at which point a supervisor assumes the role of coach to assist employees in applying and maintaining the skills they have learned. Both coaching and mentoring are used to help employees with their career and personal development; however, key differences exist between the two. Coaching is typically a time-bound activity focusing on the development of work-related knowledge and skills tied to organizational performance. Mentoring, on the other hand, is not time-bound and can continue even if the mentor or protégé changes careers or locations. Mentoring is focused more on individual development than on both individual and organizational development simultaneously. (Certo, 2005; Lamb-White, 2008)

Coaching Within the HRD Framework

The origins of organizational coaching can be traced to coaching in the worlds of arts and sports. Just as sports coaches encourage talented individuals to reach their highest potential, organizational coaches do the same. Some sports coaches may constantly offer advice and suggestions during play, while others hold back until the event is over. Organizational coaches may employ a similar range of techniques but share the same objectives of focus and motivation. Current coaching techniques also owe their origins to the "Human Potential movement" of the 1940s and 1950s, an interest in human dynamics within organizations, and a focus on client-centered orientation. (Lamb-White, 2008) Like sports coaching, organizational coaching involves providing guidance and direction to employees on ways of accomplishing tasks in order to achieve performance goals. (Certo, 2005)

A number of studies conducted by researchers including Bolch, Thach, Luthans, Peterson, Wales, and Wilson have found that workplace coaching can be extremely effective in enhancing employee morale, job satisfaction, productivity, and profitability. Coaching within the workplace has come to be recognized as an essential attribute of effective leadership. (Whitworth, Kimsey-House, Kimsey-House, & Sandahl, 2007)

A supervisor must incorporate regular observation, teaching, and encouragement as part of the coaching process, thereby facilitating learning and development. Much of this coaching is conducted informally to support the formal employee training process. (Certo, 2005) A supervisor acting as a coach must break away from the traditional view of a supervisor as an "industrial police officer" who intervened only when employees made errors. Employees who perceived supervisors as interested only in control and communication when things went wrong would never be able to contribute to a productive work atmosphere. Supervisors who adopt a coaching role must therefore work with employees — not dominate over them — not only to improve performance but also to cultivate enjoyment of work. (Carter & McMahon, 2005)

Apart from daily observation of employee performance, supervisors must also provide feedback. In the role of coach, a supervisor must offer encouragement and praise when employees meet or exceed expectations, review mistakes jointly with employees, and collaboratively develop solutions — which may involve further training, greater access to resources, or a revised task assignment. Supervisors must understand that coaching is not the same as simply instructing employees on what to do. Coaching places emphasis on actively learning about employees, recognizing their talents, and harnessing them effectively. Taking on the role of coach is especially suitable for supervisors in organizations that encourage employee participation in teamwork and decision-making. (Certo, 2005)

Conclusion

Business or workplace coaching can have a tremendous impact on managers as well as employees and can transform organizational performance. However, it is a relatively young discipline within human resource development, and a variety of studies, analyses, and innovative approaches are yet to follow. It is estimated that this profession will surpass psychotherapy in influence in the near future, with the development of further specializations affecting all types of organizations — from small business units to the largest conglomerates — and the employees and managers who are part of them. Coaching will be able to meet organizational, managerial, group, and individual challenges at the workplace and will direct each of these toward a mutually beneficial relationship that elevates everyone involved to higher levels of productivity and profitability.