Cooperation in Primates: Behavior, Reciprocity, and Parallels to Humans

Introduction to Primate Cooperation

Given their considerable intelligence relative to other non-human animals, and the many ways in which they resemble humans, primates are frequently a major subject of study when it comes to habits, trends, and behaviors. One such behavior, identified by scientists in both humans and primates, is cooperation. Primates often cooperate and work together much as humans do, and this has been a specific focus of study for many researchers — including primate specialists such as zoologists. While there are some markedly different levels of cooperation between humans and primates, there are also significant similarities.

Pro-Social Acts: Reactive and Proactive Cooperation

Cooperation tends to be present in many species, both advanced and less advanced, as they are pro-social in nature and tend to benefit the broader collective. These pro-social acts can be reactive in many cases, occurring in response to a specific set of stimuli. There can also be proactive forms of cooperation, which occur in the absence of specific stimuli. Generally speaking, reactive pro-social acts are signals or signs of need, are based on the presence or size of an audience, or are modified by the social distance to a partner or partners.

One clear example of cooperation is food sharing. It has been noted by many researchers that cooperative and even altruistic behavior is often favored by natural selection when it increases the inclusive fitness of the acting animal. The manifestations and details of such situations are becoming increasingly well understood. Another key factor is reciprocity: an animal will tend to be more inclined to cooperate when there is a symbiotic benefit involved in participating in that cooperation (Jaeggi, Burkart, and Van Schaik, 2010).

In many respects, these cooperative behaviors appear to be shaped by a set of unwritten rules that are followed, at least some of the time, by the primates or other animals involved. There can be both intrinsic and extrinsic manifestations of this dynamic. Cooperation is, of course, pervasive and common among humans. However, looking at primates and apes more broadly, one can see that it is considerably less common. Food sharing, for instance, does sometimes occur among primates and apes, but it is usually reluctant rather than actively sought. This is even the case in situations involving immediate kin. Among chimpanzees, there is very strong mutual support among bonded males, which often manifests during conflicts: if one bonded male gets into a dispute with another chimpanzee, the other bonded male will typically come to his partner's aid (Jaeggi, Burkart, and Van Schaik, 2010; Jack, 2014).

Parallels Between Apes and Humans

Generally speaking, apes are the one group that shows the most parallels and commonalities with humans. Examples include voluntary food sharing, teaching, allo-maternal care, and care for other apes that are injured or otherwise in distress. Similarly, cooperative breeding is common among callitrichine monkeys and social carnivores (Anzenberger & Falk, 2012). This suggests that cooperative breeders enjoy a higher return on investment: they provide help and receive meaningful help in return. Humans are also cooperative breeders, which is one way in which humans and primates are alike in at least a general sense (Yamamoto et al., 2014).

However, there is a strong divergence between humans and chimpanzees when it comes to cooperation. In humans, there is a high degree of interdependence among foragers, because the returns from going out alone are typically much lower than the returns achieved by remaining in a group and working together. In other words, humans recognize that there is strength in numbers, and that they all benefit more by working as a team. As such, they have learned and adapted in ways that take full advantage of this fact. A human on its own is generally going to fare much worse than a chimpanzee in the same situation — there are always exceptions, but that is the general rule (Jaeggi, Burkart, and Van Schaik, 2010). The same principle applies to the cooperation and motor coordination that has been observed in macaque monkeys (Visco-Comandini et al., 2015).

Conclusion

Primates are indeed further behind humans on the spectrum of cooperative behavior. However, they are also considerably more self-sufficient in many respects. At the same time, humans and primates are alike in that self-interest is part of the calculus governing what they do, who they do it for, and why. Both humans and primates settle into patterns and routines in their lives, but both groups will adjust their approach when the current method proves inferior to an alternative that appears necessary or more beneficial.

References

Anzenberger, G., & Falk, B. (2012). Monogamy and family life in callitrichine monkeys: Deviations, social dynamics and captive management. International Zoo Yearbook, 46(1), 109–122. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2012.00176.x

De Waal, F. M. (2006). Joint ventures require joint payoffs: Fairness among primates. Social Research, 73(2), 349–364.

Jack, K. P. (2014). Male social tolerance, cooperation, and affiliation in male dispersing primates. Behaviour, 151(7), 861–870.

Jaeggi, A. V., Burkart, J. M., & Van Schaik, C. P. (2010). On the psychology of cooperation in humans and other primates: Combining the natural history and experimental evidence of prosociality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1553), 2723–2735. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0118

Visco-Comandini, F., Ferrari-Toniolo, S., Satta, E., Papazachariadis, O., Gupta, R., Nalbant, L. E., & Battaglia-Mayer, A. (2015). Do non-human primates cooperate? Evidence of motor coordination during a joint action task in macaque monkeys. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System & Behavior, 70, 115–127. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.02.006

Yamamoto, M. E., Araujo, A., Arruda, M. F., Lima, A. M., Siqueira, J. O., & Hattori, W. T. (2014). Male and female breeding strategies in a cooperative primate. Behavioural Processes, 109, 27–33. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2014.06.009