This paper examines foundational concepts and critical issues within the criminal justice system. It defines key terminology including anecdotal, qualitative, and quantitative evidence; explores the distinction between footnotes and endnotes; outlines essential essay structure; and contrasts retributive and restorative justice approaches. The paper further addresses crime control, rehabilitation, due process, and the juvenile justice nonintervention model. A substantial portion examines racial profiling in law enforcement and related concepts of racism, bias, prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination within the criminal justice context.
Anecdotal evidence is established through anecdotes and relies on small samples, which creates a high probability of unreliable information due to non-representative or cherry-picked samples. An example of an anecdotal statement is: "There is proof that water can cure cancer. I read of a man suffering from cancer who was cured after drinking it." Such evidence lacks the rigor needed for scientific or legal conclusions.
Qualitative evidence is sourced from methods of inquiry engaged in different academic disciplines and traditional forms of social sciences, as well as market research contexts. Qualitative research aims at gathering in-depth knowledge of human behavior and the reasons governing it. Examples include grounded theory, ethnographic research, critical social research, ethical inquiry, foundational research, and philosophical research (Neubauer and Fradella 67).
Quantitative evidence provides an overall picture for a given geographical or population region, often measuring trends across time. This evidence type is valuable in describing what, who, when, and where. For example, a statement such as "the painting was 15 inches long and 14 inches wide" uses quantitative evidence to establish measurable facts.
Footnotes are categorized as notes placed within a page's footer. Endnotes are gathered under separate headings within a chapter's end or that of the entire work or volume. Endnotes have the advantage of not influencing the main text's layout, though they may cause inconveniences to readers due to the need to move between endnotes and the main text. Both footnotes and endnotes serve the purpose of giving credit to sources of materials that have been borrowed, paraphrased, or summarized (Stojkovic, Kalinich, and Klofas 98). They direct readers to exact pages for works listed in References, Bibliography, or Works Cited sections.
The integral differences between endnotes and footnotes lie in their placement and formatting. Footnotes have numerical placement within the footer of each page where direct in-text references are made. Endnotes are numerically placed at the essay's end across separate pages marked as Endnotes or Notes. Single sentences are used for both footnotes and endnotes citations, with only one period concluding each citation. Bibliography entries, by contrast, allow for closer to three sentences or statements, with each entry requiring minimal elements of three periods each.
A well-written essay follows an envisioned concept of a five-part structure. All essays comprise an introduction, the body (containing three main points), and a conclusion. The sequence is: introduction; point one; point two; point three; and conclusion. Depending on the breadth and length of the essay, the paper may contain even more main points. However, applying this basic five-part structure allows for an envisioned scope of the paper through ease in application.
The conclusion allows the author to restate the introduction and reiterate on points one, two, and three. This section is helpful in tracing the argument as established within the entire essay. One technique for achieving an effective conclusion includes creating proof that looks for facts and supportive evidence (Neubauer and Fradella 87).
The retributivist justice approach holds that when a person commits a wrongful action, the aggrieved party or the community must have an active response to it. The implications befall the individual, not in the calculation of extensive welfare. Actions leading to the contrary are aimed at disrespecting the person as a human being. Wrongdoing should be made good or balanced in some way, and criminals deserve requisite punishment. The expression is that each guilty person deserves appropriate punishment (Maxfield and Babbie 82).
An alternative argument is that retributivism bears mere revenge in its disguise. Restorative justice defines an approach to justice that focuses on the needs of offenders and victims rather than satisfying abstract legal principles and punishing offenders. Victims have active roles in the entire process, and offenders should take responsibility in making good their actions (Stuntz 72). The concept includes repairing the harm done through apologizing, community service, or returning stolen money. This approach refers to a theory of justice which considers wrongdoing and crime as offenses against the community or an individual above the state.
Crime control defines methods established to reduce crime within society. Penology focuses on the usage of criminal penalties in deterring people from committing crimes and incapacitating those with a history of offenses from making repeat offenses, either permanently or temporarily (Stuntz 98).
Rehabilitation refers to the reintegration into society of convicted persons. The major objective within modern penal policy involves countering habitual offending and criminal recidivism. Alternate imprisonment elements include probation orders, community service, and other forms that entail aftercare and guidance toward offenders (Siegel and Worrall 76).
Due process is a legal requirement where the state must respect the rights owed to an individual. Due process means notices as determined by courts, and subsequent forms of notice must suffice.
The nonintervention theory defines a "hands off" technique in the delegation of juvenile justice. This philosophy was popular within the 1970s while responding to dissatisfaction with juvenile justice court systems and subsequent failures in effectively handling delinquent behavior.
Racial profiling by law enforcement is defined as the practice of targeting individuals for crime suspicion based on national origin and religion. Creation of profiles on the forms of people who commit certain crimes leads officers into generalizing about a particular group and acting based on the generalization instead of specific behavior (Stojkovic, Kalinich, and Klofas 91). Racial profiling causes multiple problems in criminal justice (Neubauer and Fradella 79).
Various law enforcement agencies have faced expensive litigation suits due to civil rights concerns. The unstable relationships between police and the public make policing problematic. Racial profiling is highly ineffective as a policing strategy because it shifts focus from criminal activities to those unrelated to the crime. Government work to address racial profiling includes major initiatives through litigation, advocacy, and public education, as well as lobbying for anti-profiling legislation and data collection passage. The concerned agencies also litigate on behalf of individuals with a history of victimization by government agencies, airlines, and police (Siegel and Worrall 45).
"Racism, bias, prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination defined"
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