Criminological Theory and Women in the Justice System
This paper examines criminological theories as they relate to justice-involved women, drawing on presentations from the NYS Reentry Policy Conference. It critiques androcentric frameworks that have historically dominated criminology and evaluates how theories such as relational theory, role integration theory, and revisionist feminist approaches can better serve incarcerated women and inform public administration. The paper addresses reintegration, the impact of abuse, drug-related incarceration, and family separation, arguing that theory must be recalibrated to reflect women's distinct experiences. It concludes that future research and policy should center gynocentric frameworks to reduce recidivism and promote community well-being.
- Introduction: Gendered Gaps in Criminological Theory: Androcentric bias limits theories applied to women
- Existing Theories and Their Applicability to Women: Strain, differential association, and social control theories evaluated
- Relational Theory and Reintegration: Relational theory guides family-centered reintegration policy
- Role Integration and Abuse-Informed Policy: Abuse history shapes policy design and role development
- Drug Policy and Rehabilitation Theory: Drug reform essential to reducing female incarceration
- Conclusion: Toward a Female-Centered Public Administration: Future policy must center women's experiences and needs
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What makes this paper effective
- It situates its theoretical analysis within a real policy event — the NYS Reentry Policy Conference — giving abstract theory a grounded, applied context.
- It balances critique of androcentric frameworks with fair acknowledgment of theorists who argue existing theories can still apply to women, avoiding a one-sided polemic.
- It moves logically from theory critique to specific policy implications, demonstrating how academic frameworks translate into administrative practice.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates synthesis across multiple theoretical frameworks — relational theory, role integration theory, strain theory, and revisionist feminist criminology — evaluating each for its explanatory power and policy utility. Rather than advocating for a single theory, the author maps a theoretical landscape and assesses where each framework succeeds or falls short when applied to justice-involved women.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens by identifying the androcentric bias in mainstream criminology, then surveys existing theories and their partial applicability to women. It pivots to relational theory as a central lens for reintegration policy, adds role integration and abuse-informed approaches, and addresses drug policy as a distinct administrative challenge. The conclusion synthesizes the theoretical implications for future public administration and research directions.
Introduction: Gendered Gaps in Criminological Theory
Some criminological theories attempt to differentiate issues in order to provide "distinctly different theories of crime for women," questioning whether prevailing themes are applicable to the female offender population (Proctor, 2004, p. 61). Because many of the prevailing theories of crime and criminology evolved within an androcentric schema, it may be necessary to revise such theories, accommodate for their limitations, or develop new ones. As Fletcher, Shaver, and Moon (1993) put it, "women's experiences in the criminal justice system cannot be fully comprehended without recognizing the importance of patriarchy as a defining characteristic of those experiences" (p. 1). The development of new gynocentric theories in criminology may be especially helpful from a public administration standpoint, because administration and public policy follow directly from theoretical frameworks.
A female-centered theoretical stance might redefine crime itself, as well as determine appropriate treatment or structural interventions from an administrative standpoint. Prisons have not kept pace with the relatively rapid growth in the numbers and proportions of women incarcerated, and the needs of women differ significantly from the needs of men (Covington, 1998). It is possible that prevailing androcentric theories are doing damage to the very population that policies intend to serve.
A revisionist theory may indeed be helpful in coming to terms with the fact that "some of the most neglected, misunderstood and unseen women in our society are those in our jails, prisons, and correctional facilities" (Covington, 1998). This is why the 5th Annual NYS Reentry Policy Conference addressed the concept of "Elevating Women" by "Strengthening Policies and Practices to Support the Needs of Justice-Involved Women." Research has consistently shown that criminological studies conducted on male populations cannot be generalized to account for the female "justice-involved" population (Bonta, Pang, & Wallace-Capretta, 1995).
Existing Theories and Their Applicability to Women
Women-centric theories remain underdeveloped for several reasons. For one, there is meaningful resistance to a gendered view of criminality and criminal justice. Proctor (2004) claims that "a special brand of theorizing is not required to adequately explain female criminality" (p. 61). Existing theories such as Agnew's Extended Strain Theory, Sutherland's Differential Association Theory, and Hirschi's 1969 Social Control Theory do apply reasonably well to incarcerated women and can inform public policy on the matter (Proctor, 2004). Further research reveals that certain demographic factors may link male and female prison populations, including race, class, social status, and history of substance abuse (Covington, 1998). If the range of female criminality can in fact be explained within universal frameworks, that too has significant implications for public administrators.
Relational Theory and Reintegration
Relational theory "helps us understand what women need from our criminal justice system" (Covington, 1998, p. 1). Relational theory examines the female experience through the lens of developmental psychology, suggesting that women reach successful maturity by forming strong, meaningful relationships with others — especially family members, but also friends and members of the community. When those relationships are disrupted, it can lead to psychological difficulties and, in some cases, criminality. Relational theory can account for some of the causal factors in women's experiences with the criminal justice system, and it can also point toward possible solutions.
Relational theory is especially useful when designing effective reintegration programs. Theories related to reintegration are central to any discussion of the female incarceration experience and how to address the needs of this population. Reintegration frameworks can reduce recidivism and better achieve the primary goals of criminal justice intervention. During Discussion Panel 1 of the NYS Reentry Policy Conference, moderator Miller-Hill (2010) addressed personal perspectives on reintegration. It is crucial that policy makers understand reintegration from the perspective of relational theory, which can inform the best approaches to encouraging incarcerated women to create, maintain, and sustain nurturing, honest, and constructive relationships with their families.
Approximately two-thirds of incarcerated women have children under the age of 18 (Covington, 1998, p. 1). As Blanchette and Taylor (n.d.) point out, "family separation and community isolation, poor quality of life conditions, mental illness, and lack of secure, stable employment are all critical factors in addressing the reintegration needs of women" (p. 1). Theories related to shame, and its impact on the identity of former inmates as they navigate the difficult path of reintegration, can especially help administrators design and oversee programs that promote both personal and community well-being.
Conclusion: Toward a Female-Centered Public Administration
Theoretical frameworks inform public policy, which is why administrators need to understand the basis for applying theory to practice. The Conference elucidated several underlying theories that require further development in future research. Revisionist theories offer new ways of conceptualizing crime, criminological research, rehabilitation, and reintegration from a female standpoint. By framing crime and its treatment around women's experiences and needs, public policy becomes far more likely to benefit the target population. Generalizing from male-centered, patriarchal frameworks has yet to yield results that suggest those theories are effective for helping women.
Traditional theories of crime such as strain and conflict theory will always underwrite criminological research. However, emerging theories reveal the future direction of public administration as it relates to the female experience of crime and incarceration. The Conference discussions took a pro-social and pro-female approach, underscoring the need for a more robust emphasis on relational theory. Relational theory situates women's experiences within systems of family and community, suggesting that family systems theory can also be applied to public policy related to prisoner reintegration and crime prevention in at-risk communities.
With relational theory, policy makers and public administrators can envision new methods of helping women — many of whom are victims of abuse and trauma. A longer-range vision centered on the transformation of drug laws will also help reduce the staggering numbers of women who encounter the criminal justice system each year. Theories related to role integration can further inform programs designed around mentoring and coaching, contributing meaningfully to future community and personal health.
References
Bloom, B., Owen, B., & Covington, S. (2004). Women offenders and the gendered effects of public policy. Review of Public Policy Research, 21(1).
Bonta, J., Pang, B., & Wallace-Capretta, S. (1995). Predictors of recidivism among incarcerated female offenders. The Prison Journal, 75(3), 277–294.
Covington, S. S. (1998). The relational theory of women's psychological development: Implications for the criminal justice system.
Covington, S. S. (1998). Women in prison.
Fletcher, B. R., Shaver, L. D., & Moon, D. G. (1993). Women prisoners: A forgotten population. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Martinez, D. J. (2010). Role accumulation theory and prisoner integration. Probation Journal, 57(2), 139–151.
Proctor, J. (2004). Understanding the range of female criminality: A prison-based test of three traditional theories. Women's Studies Quarterly, 32(3/4), 61–85.
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