This paper applies Everett Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory — originally articulated in 1962 and refined through subsequent editions — to nine contemporary case studies drawn from diverse fields. After summarizing Rogers' five-step adoption process and three types of innovation decisions, the paper reviews examples including Carrefour's expansion into China, the retirement of the Concorde, the spread of high-fructose corn syrup, LASIK eye surgery, Viagra's path to generic status, GPS technology, tablet computers, social media in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, and the Gaia theory of environmental awareness. Together, these cases illustrate the varied pace, mechanisms, and societal implications of technological and cultural diffusion.
In 1962, sociologist Everett Rogers popularized the theory of diffusion of innovations, which seeks to explain the how, why, and rate at which new ideas and technology spread through culture. Rogers believed that diffusion is the process by which innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a culture. Depending on the culture, the diffusion of different innovations varies and may span across multiple disciplines.
There are three types of innovation decisions that help spread diffusion: (1) Optional Innovation-Decision — made by an individual distinguished within a social system; (2) Collective Innovation-Decision — made by all individuals within that system; and (3) Authority Innovation-Decision — made for the entire system by individuals in power.
Once the decision and innovation are established, Rogers identifies a five-step process through which a new innovation or technology may become adopted by members of society:
Knowledge — Individuals are exposed to innovations but lack information. There is building interest, but no real motivation to adopt.
Persuasion — Individuals become more intrigued by the innovation and actively seek more details and information about it.
Decision — Individuals weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the innovation and decide whether to adopt or reject it.
Implementation — Individuals use the innovation in varying degrees depending on the situation. They communicate with one another and weigh the overall usefulness of the innovation.
Confirmation — Individuals finalize the decision and either continue to use the innovation or reject it completely, at which point the process begins anew (Rogers, 2003).
Carrefour is an international hypermarket chain headquartered in France. It is one of the largest hypermarket chains in the world and the second-largest global retail group in terms of revenue, trailing only Walmart. It operates mainly in Europe and select South American and Central American countries, but has more recently expanded into China and Asia in response to the development of those markets.
Carrefour is a compelling example because it employs a six-tiered approach within its European market. This approach seeks to maximize service through: (1) low prices, (2) self-service where possible, (3) one-stop shopping, (4) high-quality products, (5) product freshness, and (6) free parking. Each of these principles is distinctly Euro-centric and not always translatable to Asian culture. Diffusion into Asia remains challenging and serves as a prime example of hesitancy when entering a new market.
Technology — even when diffused and seemingly adopted by segments of society — is not always a long-term success. Such was the case with the supersonic transport aircraft (SST), capable of carrying passengers at speeds greater than the speed of sound. This technology operated profitably for approximately 25 years in the form of transatlantic flights between New York and Newark to London via the Concorde. There are several reasons the Concorde is no longer in service and has returned to the drawing board for future aircraft concepts. It stands as an example of a product that was initially adopted with great enthusiasm and widely diffused, but whose appeal faded when alternative aircraft from Boeing and Airbus demonstrated greater fuel efficiency, lower noise levels, and far lower costs. The public ultimately abandoned its enthusiasm for the SST in favor of cost savings.
The concept of diffusion also encompasses the way ideas become embedded in culture through innovation, and may reflect a partnership between big business and government — that is, authoritarian forces within a culture. One such example is high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Excess corn production and increased pressure from farming lobbies led to a governmental program that subsidizes farmers to sell to cooperatives specializing not in feeding livestock but in producing this "new sugar." The process of diffusion in this case demonstrates the power of change within a small market: through appropriate channels, what began as an agricultural or biochemical change diffused broadly through the food supply. This influence extended to the numerous fast and comfort foods consumed from an early age, creating patterns of craving and consumption that intensify over time.
LASIK eye surgery uses laser beams to reshape the cornea, relieve pressure, or otherwise correct vision in the human eye — addressing conditions such as myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. The underlying technology was developed in the 1950s, but it was not until the price and size of lasers decreased significantly that enough consumers could afford the procedure. The diffusion cycle was fairly typical: when the technology first entered the market, only relatively wealthy individuals could afford it. Since approximately 2004, however, surgeries have been offered in nearly every mid-to-large city, with payment plans, outpatient treatment options, and even shuttle services available for patients. This rapid dissemination of LASIK technology moved it from an elite procedure to one now considered affordable — if not necessary — for a broad segment of the population.
Viagra, marketed under several brand names, is a drug used to treat erectile dysfunction. It was scheduled to become available in generic form in 2019, and from a diffusion perspective it is notable for several reasons. First, it was one of the first mass-produced drugs addressing a relatively private medical issue. Second, it encouraged men of all ages to come forward and discuss their concerns with a healthcare professional. Third, it opened the door for older individuals to continue exploring an active sex life. Fourth, it had a transformative effect on the adult entertainment industry, as male performers no longer needed to worry about performance. Finally, the expiration of its patent and the transition to generic brands will further diffuse the market and increase accessibility. From a diffusion standpoint, this is a clear example of how a drug with a specific physiological effect can evolve into broader social and cultural significance.
"Consumer tech diffusing rapidly across global markets"
"Obama campaign's use of internet to transform political campaigning"
"Environmental ideas diffusing through global political systems"
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