This paper provides an introductory overview of Down syndrome (Trisomy 21), a genetic disorder caused by the triplication of the 21st chromosome. It traces the history of the condition's identification, from John Langdon Down's 1866 observations to Jerome Lejeune and Patricia Jacobs' 1959 discovery of its chromosomal cause. The paper then examines psychological assessment tools used to evaluate cognitive development, verbal skills, and adaptive behavior in children with Down syndrome. It also outlines the academic strengths and weaknesses commonly observed in these students and reviews research findings on effective inclusion practices in school settings. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of individualized assessment and appropriate referral to educational and community services.
The paper demonstrates effective synthesis of multiple sources around a single topic. Rather than summarizing each source in isolation, it integrates findings from Meier, Pulsifer, Fox et al., and Bird et al. to construct a progressive narrative — from diagnosis and history, through assessment, to classroom support strategies.
The paper is organized into four substantive sections following a logical progression: a general introduction to the disorder, its genetic cause and history, psychological and educational coping strategies, and specific academic strengths and weaknesses. A brief conclusion ties together the key theme of individualized assessment and referral. The structure mimics a clinical overview report, moving from etiology to intervention.
Each year approximately 5,000 children are born with Down syndrome (Meier, 2008). Down syndrome is also known as Trisomy 21 and is a genetic disorder in which the affected person has an extra chromosome — 47 instead of the usual 46 (Meier, 2008). The extra chromosome results in a variety of expressions, including a flattened facial profile, certain health issues, and intellectual disability, usually only mild or moderate in degree (Meier, 2008). The chances of having a baby with Down syndrome are stated to increase with the age of the mother; however, more than eighty percent of children born with this disorder are born to women under thirty-five years of age (Meier, 2008).
Leshin (2003) relates that a physician named John Langdon Down published an essay in England in 1866 in which he described a set of children with common features who were distinct from other children with intellectual disabilities. Down was the superintendent of an asylum for children with mental retardation in Surrey, England at the time he first drew a distinction between children who were cretins — later found to have hypothyroidism — and those he referred to as Mongoloids (Leshin, 2003).
In the early years of the twentieth century, much speculation arose regarding the cause of this syndrome. In 1959, Jerome Lejeune and Patricia Jacobs determined that the cause of Down syndrome was trisomy — the triplication of the 21st chromosome (Leshin, 2003).
Pulsifer (2005) states that children with Down syndrome are frequently given a psychological evaluation as part of their multidisciplinary assessment. A psychological assessment is important because it is used to: (1) identify the child's strengths and weaknesses; (2) determine the best intervention; (3) monitor the child's progress and treatment effectiveness; and (4) give parents insight about the child's abilities (Pulsifer, 2005).
Tests used to measure cognitive development or intelligence in children with Down syndrome include the following:
1) Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Mental Scale); 2) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition; 3) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence – Revised (WPPSI-R); and 4) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – III (WISC-III) (Pulsifer, 2005).
Tests used to assess specific verbal skills include: 1) the Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test; 2) the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; and 3) the Receptive-Expressive Emergent Language Scale (REEL) (Pulsifer, 2005).
Adaptive skills testing is generally accomplished with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, while the assessment of temperament and behavioral style is generally accomplished with the Carey Infant Temperament Questionnaire and the Toddler Temperament Questionnaire (Pulsifer, 2005). After the child has been psychologically evaluated, the psychologist is able to provide information to parents and professionals to assist them in obtaining appropriate services (Pulsifer, 2005).
The psychologist generally makes one of four recommendations: 1) special education placement; 2) specific services including speech and language therapy; 3) behavior management at school and home; and 4) referral to community services for parent support (Pulsifer, 2005).
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