Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood: From Underground Movement to Political Power
This paper examines the history and political trajectory of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood from its founding in 1928 to its brief tenure as Egypt's ruling party following the 2011 Arab Spring. The essay traces the organization's evolution from a pan-Islamic revival movement under Hasan al-Banna through decades of government repression under Nasser and Mubarak, its emergence as a legal political entity (the Freedom and Justice Party), and its subsequent removal from power following Mohamed Morsi's presidency. The paper analyzes the Brotherhood's ideological foundations, regional influence, the role of key figures like Sayyid Qutb and Ayman al-Zawahiri, and its support base among rural, socially conservative Egyptians, concluding with its designation as a terrorist organization under General Abdel Fattah El-Sisi's regime.
- Founding and Early Development Under Hasan al-Banna: Formation in 1928 as pan-Islamic revival under al-Banna
- Repression and Underground Resistance (1950s–1970s): Violent suppression under Nasser and survival strategies
- Regional Expansion and Ideological Radicalization: Spread throughout Muslim world and radical offshoots
- The Mubarak Era and Selective Tolerance: Amnesty, growth, crackdowns, and parliamentary participation
- The Arab Spring and Electoral Victory: Role in 2011 uprising and electoral dominance
- Elite Support and the Morsi Presidency: First democratic leader's constitutional crisis and polarization
- Military Coup and Contemporary Repression: El-Sisi's rise and Brotherhood's designation as terrorist
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What makes this paper effective
- Comprehensive chronological narrative that traces organizational evolution across eight decades, grounding abstract political concepts in concrete historical events.
- Balanced integration of multiple authoritative sources (NPR interviews with regional analysts, academic publications, news outlets) to support claims about motivations, ideology, and popular support.
- Clear explanation of the Brotherhood's shifting relationship with different Egyptian regimes, moving from revolutionary opposition under Nasser to tolerated competition under Mubarak to electoral dominance post–2011.
- Strategic inclusion of key ideological figures (Qutb, al-Zawahiri) that illustrate how the organization inspired both moderate political activity and radical terrorism.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper employs historical periodization as its organizing framework, dividing the Brotherhood's story into distinct eras of repression, underground survival, legalization, and renewed suppression. This approach allows the writer to show causation across time—how each phase shaped the organization's strategy and ideology. The paper also demonstrates effective use of expert testimony (El-Shimy's analysis of voter motivations) to support interpretive claims, rather than relying solely on narrative fact.
Structure breakdown
The essay follows a roughly chronological structure beginning with the 1928 founding and al-Banna's leadership, moving through violent repression and the Secret Apparatus period, then to regional spread and radicalization. A midpoint shift occurs with the Sadat and early Mubarak periods, where selective tolerance allowed the Brotherhood to rebuild. The narrative accelerates toward the 2011 Arab Spring, Morsi's presidency, the 2013 coup, and contemporary suppression. Interwoven throughout are discussions of ideological evolution, support demographics, and key personnel, all anchored to specific years and events.
Founding and Early Development Under Hasan al-Banna
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 when Great Britain still controlled Egypt. World War I had effectively ended the Muslim caliphate, and it was this entity that the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood sought to restore. Even though the organization broadly recognizes that this goal will not be quickly achieved, estimates suggest that several decades of effort will be needed to accomplish the objective.
Hasan al-Banna, a teacher from a middle-class, educated family, had participated in demonstrations against British colonial rule since his youth. Al-Banna was respected as both a preacher and an unorthodox thinker—attributes that led disgruntled workers from the Suez Canal zone to seek him out. Encouraged by their approach, al-Banna began a "pan-Islamic revival and solidarity movement" henceforth referred to as the Muslim Brotherhood.
According to Yasser El-Shimy, an Egypt and Middle East Analyst for the International Crisis Group based in Cairo and former diplomat of the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood "has worked assiduously to build the kind of conservative religious society and eventually build a kind of religious conservative state that would serve as a nucleus for the reestablishment of the caliphate." In the beginning, the Muslim Brotherhood emphasized education and organization, but also agitation, as the group targeted remaining British influence in Egypt and the emerging Zionism in Palestine, which was a British mandate.
Interest in the Muslim Brotherhood rose rapidly, prompting a move to Cairo where the organization became increasingly attractive to middle-class members and sympathizers. Egypt was destabilized by high rates of unemployment and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Although al-Banna protested the establishment of a military wing of the organization, he did not prevail. As a result, the Secret Apparatus emerged and conducted attacks on police stations belonging to both the British and the Egyptians. When the Secret Apparatus killed a judge, official sanctions included an order to disband the organization, and authorities conducted a violent crackdown on members of the Muslim Brotherhood.
The situation continued to escalate: a member of the Muslim Brotherhood assassinated the Egyptian Prime Minister, Mahmud al-Nuqrashi. In 1949, al-Banna was murdered by gunmen in what was believed to be retaliation by the government. Anti-British sentiment and nationalism continued to escalate, and 1952 brought a violent skirmish between British soldiers and Egyptian police, with arsonists nearly burning Cairo to the ground. In July of that year, a coup by the Free Officers Movement—a clique of army officers—brought down the British puppet, King Farouk. The new government was headed by Gamal Abdel Nasser, whom the Brotherhood supported at the beginning of the revolution, but soon mistrusted as Nasser gave no indication he was interested in sharing power. In 1954, a failed attempt to assassinate Nasser led to waves of arrests and torture of prisoners, with the Muslim Brotherhood blamed for the attempted assassination.
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