Epic Poetry and the Hero: A Study of Beowulf

Introduction: Defining the Epic

Epic is probably one of the most fascinating forms of ancient narrative, and its contribution to the growth and evolution of literature cannot be overestimated. To seek a clear definition of an epic is a difficult undertaking, since there appears to be less consensus on its definition than on almost any other major literary term. Philosophers, writers, and oral masters from the time of Aristotle to Seamus Heaney have argued about the critical features of an epic. While all agree that it is a long narrative eulogizing the heroic deeds of its protagonist, no clear definition has emerged that captures all of its essential features. Roughly speaking, epic is a term used by historians for "a number of works belonging to the earlier Middle Ages, and to the medieval origins of modern literature. 'Epic' is a term freely applied to the old school of Germanic narrative poetry, which in different dialects is represented by the poems of Hildebrand, of Beowulf, of Sigurd and Brynhild" (Ker 3).

While some critics consider epic a form of oral tradition transformed into literary narrative, others view "the heroic epic as a cultural rather than a literary phenomenon. Epic poems grew out of appropriate cultural conditions, the so-called Heroic Age bridging nomadic and sedentary stages of civilization" (Oinas 1).

The Epic Hero and the Debate Over Virtue

One reason for the disagreement and lack of consensus on the definition of the term "epic" originates from the character of the protagonist and the attributes he is assigned. Who is an epic hero? How is he different from other heroes, and is he supposed to be a virtuous being absolutely free of faults, or is he someone like Aristotle's tragic hero, who brings about his own downfall due to his character flaws? The answer to this question has given rise to a passionate debate on the definition of epic, as W. Macneile Dixon (1912) explained:

"The discussion of the hero's character exhibits similar disagreement. Unlike the hero of tragedy, who should not, according to Aristotle, be either faultless or a ruffian, the epic hero should be perfectly virtuous, says Tasso, but, argues Dryden, it is not necessary that the manners of the hero should be immaculate; they are practically good if they are of a piece, and though Achilles is the protagonist of the Iliad we must abhor his cruelty to a dead enemy, and the sale of that enemy's body, Hector's, to his father Priam." (3–4)

However, closer study of epic heroes does reveal some shared characteristics. They all exhibit a fearless spirit and are often more courageous in the face of danger than is good for them. They may or may not have character flaws: while Sir Gawain shows weakness on several occasions in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Beowulf is an epitome of virtue and morality. A hero's character flaw, where it exists, does not interfere with his blind ambition or his courageous pursuit of his goals. The nature of those goals may, however, differ from epic to epic.

Beowulf: Origins, Language, and Artistry

Beowulf is an epic poem written somewhere between 750 and 1000 A.D. The exact date is unknown because the poem was composed anonymously, but the style of writing and language suggest it was composed during or after the seventh century. The language — a form of Old English, or Anglo-Saxon — is nearly impossible for modern readers to understand, and for this reason readers generally rely on translations. Despite this barrier, the language was used skillfully and creatively to depict various themes in the true poetic style of its era.

Commenting on the language of the poem, critic Seamus Heaney (2000) writes: "The fact that the English language has changed so much in the last thousand years means, however, that the poem is now generally read in translation and mostly in English courses at schools and universities. This has contributed to the impression that it was written (as Osip Mandelstam said of The Divine Comedy) 'on official paper,' which is unfortunate, since what we are dealing with is a work of the greatest imaginative vitality, a masterpiece where the structuring of the tale is as elaborate as the beautiful contrivances of its language. Its narrative elements may belong to a previous age but as a work of art it lives in its own continuous present, equal to our knowledge of reality in the present time."

Surprisingly, while the language itself is ancient, the poetic descriptions are thoroughly modern in their emotional immediacy. In one scene near the end of the poem, a Geat woman loudly mourns the death of her beloved hero, Beowulf, and the scene is described in a way that could come from the pen of a modern poet or writer. This quality keeps the poem fresh, allowing modern readers to relate to it quite easily. In this particular scene, the depth of her grief is palpable:

On a height they kindled the hugest of all / funeral fires; fumes of woodsmoke / billowed darkly up, the blaze roared / and drowned out their weeping, wind died down / and flames wrought havoc in the hot bone-house, / burning it to the core. They were disconsolate / and wailed aloud for their lord's decease. / A Geat woman too sang out in grief; / with hair bound up, she unburdened herself / of her worst fears, a wild litany / of nightmare and lament: her nation invaded, / enemies on the rampage, bodies in piles, / slavery and abasement. Heaven swallowed / the smoke.

(ll. 3143–55)

The poem is believed to have been written in England, though the events it describes all take place in the Scandinavian region. The author assumes the audience is already familiar with these events and therefore does not explain the details of their date or setting. For this reason, we remain uncertain both about when these events took place and about their historical authenticity. Whether these battles actually occurred is a question that critics and readers have pondered for a long time without reaching a firm answer. Some, however, hold that even if these battles never took place or are symbolic in nature, they must have been inspired by real events. Many critics also believe the poem existed as an oral tale before it was ever written down. Because the source of inspiration is missing or unknown, modern critics have turned their focus to the content and language of the poem to learn about its true intent, purpose, and date of origin.

Though critics disagree about the actual source and date of the epic, they unanimously agree that Beowulf is a magnificent work of art. It is not simply a lyrical tale of gallantry and courage, nor is it merely a poem about good versus evil in which the former triumphs in the end. It is, as Charles W. Kennedy (1968) describes, a work "of cultivated craftsmanship, sophisticated rather than primitive in form, and definitely influenced by literary and religious tradition. The influence of the Christian faith is marked and pervasive. There are evidences, also, which seem to support the opinion that the author of the Beowulf was familiar with the works of Virgil, and that the structure and development of the poem were influenced by epic tradition as illustrated in the Aeneid... The material, then, from which the story and setting of the Beowulf were fashioned was in its origin Continental. Of this alien and pagan material the Old English poet has shaped a poem courtly in mood, suggestive of epic tradition, and Christian in spirit. It is a mark of the poet's skill that the elements derived from these various and varied sources, from chronicle and legend, from folk-tale and lay, have been deftly integrated, and fused into a new unity." (x–xi)

Conclusion

Beowulf thus represents a true epic hero who is virtuous to the core and fearless till the very last breath. He exemplifies morality and courage, which were the main attributes of an epic hero and also the key characteristics of the greatest epic poems. In combining pagan legend with Christian values, Old English craftsmanship with timeless emotional truth, and the virtuous hero with the embodiment of monstrous evil, Beowulf achieves what all great epics aspire to: a narrative that transcends its historical moment and speaks with enduring force to any age that reads it.

References

Heaney, Seamus. "From Beowulf." (Critical Essay.) The American Poetry Review, 01/01/2000.

Lee, Terry. "'It made me think, seeing myself like that': Affective Literary Representations of the Inferior Masculine Self, or Good-bye, Billy Pilgrim." The Journal of Men's Studies, vol. 11, no. 2, 2003.

Kennedy, Charles W. Beowulf. Hand and Flower Press, Aldington, England, 1968.

Dixon, W. Macneile. English Epic and Heroic Poetry. J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London, 1912.

Oinas, Felix J. Heroic Epic and Saga: An Introduction to the World's Great Folk Epics. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1978.

Ker, W.P. Epic and Romance: Essays on Medieval Literature. General Publishing Company, Ltd., New York, 1957.