Ethnicity and Racism Among Indigenous Australians

Introduction

Ethnicity and racism apply to Indigenous Australians (Aborigines) throughout their history — sad but true. Since the English first settled Australia in the 1700s, the Indigenous population has suffered greatly, and it is one of Australia's greatest shames that this suffering went on for so long. This paper examines what the terms ethnicity and racism mean, and critically explores how these terms apply to the experiences of Indigenous Australians.

Indigenous Australian Culture and History

The Indigenous people of Australia — Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders — are among the oldest cultures on Earth. Archaeologists believe their lineage goes back at least 50,000 years, and some believe it could extend as far back as 65,000 years ago. They were the original occupants of Australia and have a deep and abiding respect for the land and its many different environments. As one Aboriginal source notes, "For Indigenous Australians, the land is the core of all spirituality and this relationship and the spirit of 'country' is central to the issues that are important to Indigenous people today" (Editors, 2008). One reason they have such a strong affinity with the land is that they lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers; each band or tribe had its own traditional territory and literally survived by living off the land.

The land sustained them, and in turn, they learned to adapt to changing conditions and respect the land that gave them life. Before the English arrived, there were approximately 600 different bands of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders scattered around the continent, living in environments ranging from arid deserts to lush forests. Each group developed differently according to where they lived and what skills they acquired. They also developed different tools suited to their specific locations. As the editors note, "Tools and implements reflect the geographical location of different groups. For example, coastal tribes used fishbone to tip their weapons, whereas desert tribes used stone tips" (Editors, 2008). In their travels throughout the country, the Aborigines designated certain areas of land as sacred. One of the most well known is Uluru, which the British named Ayers Rock. The Aborigines have a unique and colorful history and culture, but since Europeans first arrived, they have been subjugated and persecuted, much as African Americans were in the United States — and it took them much longer to gain their freedom.

The history of Australia's colonization is well-documented. As one Australian expert notes, "Australia as a non-Indigenous space began life as a convict dumping ground. Many of the first British immigrants who came to Australia arrived not by free choice but by decree of the court" (Elder, 2007). As the colony grew, colonists — whether supporting the prison colonies or attempting to start a new life — began taking traditional tribal lands from the Indigenous people. The people did not fight back, largely because they were decimated by smallpox that the settlers brought with them. Historian Clarke explains, "This devastation of the natives of Sydney Cove helps to explain the lack of any large-scale resistance to white settlement. Once the disease had swept through the Aborigines of the Port Jackson region, the dispirited remnants were no longer capable of being more than an occasional nuisance to the spread of settlement" (Clarke, 2002). After their numbers were reduced, they continued to be pushed away from white settlements, often living in squalor in remote, neglected villages or moving into the slums of growing cities, trying to find any work they could to stay alive. As another writer observes, "Colonisation was a period of dispossession, oppression, conflict and violence and occurred at a time of traumatic social change causing much distress for Indigenous Australians" (Bacon, 2007). This continued throughout Australia's history and persists even today, as Indigenous people continue to suffer a variety of social problems rooted in their ethnicity and societal racism.

Ethnicity and Its Impact on Indigenous Australians

A person's ethnicity is more than just their race. It encompasses their culture, their belief systems, and their ethnic group identity. In Australia, all Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders belong to the broad ethnic group known as "Indigenous people," but within that group they are divided into several tribes or communities, each with its own distinct culture and belief system. Ethnicity is grounded in race, however, and so it shares a common bond with racism, since most racism is based on ethnicity and culture.

One area where ethnic differences produce significant societal disparities is health. Indigenous people suffer far more health problems than white Australians and have considerably shorter life spans. As one researcher notes:

• Aboriginal people live 18–20 years less than their white counterparts.
• Only 2 out of 5 Aboriginal men can expect to live beyond their 65th birthday.
• At any age, Aboriginal people are much more likely to die than non-Aboriginal people of the same age (O'Donoghue, 1999).

In addition, healthcare facilities are often understaffed or nonexistent in Aboriginal communities, and residents may lack transportation to reach a nearby hospital or clinic. Research confirms this pattern: "International research shows a correlation between low socioeconomic status and higher rates of communicable diseases, mental disorders, self-harming behaviour, and chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes" (Adams, 2006). Since most Indigenous people live in low socioeconomic circumstances, this research applies directly to them. Studies show they do suffer from all of these conditions, as well as higher rates of addiction to drugs or alcohol.

Health is not the only area in which Indigenous Australians suffer. They also face poverty, ethnic misunderstanding, and dramatic cultural disruption. Historically, they lived off the land and held it sacred. Because they were denied education during colonial times, they had no means to formally preserve their social and cultural history, and much of their ethnic heritage was lost along the way. Traditionally, white Australians did not consider Aborigines citizens of the country, even though they had inhabited it for tens of thousands of years. They were not allowed to vote, were paid less than whites for comparable work, and had few resources to fall back on (Clarke, 2002).

In recent decades, there has been a renewed interest in many Aboriginal arts and customs — including dance, visual art, song, ceremony, and the perpetuation of Dreaming (creation) stories (Editors, 2008). These efforts to preserve and celebrate Indigenous ethnicity and culture have been welcomed by many Aboriginal people and represent one way Australians are attempting to mend the rift between Indigenous people and the wider population.

Conclusion

Racism and ethnicity issues form the basis of the Indigenous peoples' experience in Australia. They have been persecuted by whites for centuries, and they have only recently received a formal apology for that persecution. While conditions have improved somewhat, Indigenous people still suffer disproportionately from a range of societal problems — from healthcare to living conditions — and at the heart of this suffering lies deeply entrenched racism and systemic persecution. Their ethnic heritage has endured the same assault, and it is only in recent decades that a renewed interest in Aboriginal culture has begun to restore a measure of pride and dignity to their identity. These concepts apply directly to Indigenous Australians because they have lived with their consequences since the British first arrived, and it is long past time that persecution, racism, and ethnic discrimination against the Aborigines come to an end.

References

Adams, M. (2006). Raising the profile of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men's health: An Indigenous man's perspective. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2006(2), 68+.

Author not Available. (2006). Indigenous Australians. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved from http://www.aihw.gov.au/indigenous/index.cfm

Clarke, F. G. (2002). The history of Australia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Editors. (2008). Australian Indigenous cultural heritage. Retrieved from http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/indigenous/

Elder, B. (2007). Blood on the wattle: Massacres and maltreatment of Australian Aborigines since 1788. Sydney: New Holland.

O'Donoghue, L. (1999). Towards a culture of improving indigenous health in Australia. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 7, 64–69.

Ritter, D. (2005). Honour among nations? Treaties and agreements with Indigenous people. The Australian Journal of Politics and History, 51(1), 148+.