Female Genital Mutilation: Global Review and Analysis
This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of female genital mutilation (FGM), examining its four recognized types, global prevalence, and the regions where it is most commonly practiced. Drawing on medical journals, WHO reports, and empirical research, the paper explores the cultural, religious, and social justifications offered for FGM, alongside its well-documented short- and long-term health consequences. Key studies from Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Burkina Faso are discussed, as are legal prohibitions in both African and Western nations. The paper also considers the psychosexual effects of FGM on men and the broader human rights framework within which the practice is increasingly condemned.
- Introduction and Types of FGM: Defines FGM and its four recognized types
- Global Prevalence and Geographic Distribution: Numbers affected and regions where FGM occurs
- Cultural, Religious, and Social Justifications: Cultural, religious, and social reasons offered for FGM
- Health Consequences and Complications: Short- and long-term medical harms of FGM
- Empirical Research and Country-Level Studies: Study findings from Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Burkina Faso
- Human Rights Framework and Policy Responses: WHO position, legal prohibitions, and policy efforts
- Conclusion: Western liberal critique and closing reflections
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What makes this paper effective
- The paper synthesizes a wide range of peer-reviewed sources — including medical journals, WHO reports, and empirical studies — to build a well-rounded, evidence-based picture of FGM across multiple dimensions.
- It moves logically from definition and prevalence to causation, consequences, and policy, giving readers a clear progression from descriptive to analytical content.
- The inclusion of primary research data (e.g., the 522-case Nigerian study, the Sudanese male survey) strengthens the argument with concrete empirical evidence rather than relying solely on secondary commentary.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates effective source triangulation — cross-referencing findings from multiple independent studies (British Journal of Midwifery, WHO reports, The Ahfad Journal) to validate claims about prevalence, complications, and cultural justifications. This technique allows the writer to show consistency across sources while also highlighting discrepancies, such as varying prevalence estimates and contested religious textual support.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens with definitional groundwork (the four FGM types), moves through epidemiological data and geographic scope, then examines cultural and religious rationales before turning to health consequences. It integrates empirical country-level studies in a dedicated section, addresses human rights and legal frameworks, and closes with a philosophical reflection on Western liberalism and the practice. Each section builds on the previous, making the overall argument cumulative and coherent.
Introduction and Types of FGM
There are four types of female genital mutilation (FGM), according to an article in the British Journal of Midwifery (Momoh, 2004, p. 631). Type 1, called clitoridectomy, involves the "excision of the clitoral prepuce" and may also involve the excision of all or part of the clitoris. Type 2 involves the cutting away of the clitoris from the body, and may also include the excision of "all or part of the labia minora." Type 3, called infibulation, involves "excision of part or all of the external genitalia and the stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening." Type 4 refers to all other procedures in which a female's genitals are cut.
How many females have been subjected to FGM in any of the four types described above? Momoh writes that worldwide it affects "more than 120 million women," and in addition, "an estimated two million girls are circumcised each year." According to another article in the British Journal of Midwifery (Sihwa and Baron, 2004, p. 717), "an estimated 100–130 million girls and women in the world have undergone FGM," and around two million girls are "at risk" annually.
Global Prevalence and Geographic Distribution
Beyond those initial figures, Sihwa writes that "the practice of FGM and its consequences affect an estimated 80 million women in the world," and the places where FGM is most common include Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.
FGM is also practiced in regions of western countries where immigrants from Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East have settled. In London, a doctor was recently banned from practicing after being videotaped "agreeing to circumcise an eight-year-old girl" and agreeing to "stitch two older girls." English law — the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 — makes it an offense to "excise, infibulate or otherwise mutilate the whole or any part of the labia majora or labia minora or clitoris" of a female.
"More needs to be done" to educate and train midwives, Sihwa asserts, pointing out that at a recent conference in London, fewer than five of 50 midwives in attendance were aware of the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985, notwithstanding the fact that it had been in place for 20 years.
The country with the highest incidence of FGM is Somalia, Momoh writes; approximately 98% of women undergo FGM to one degree or another, due to "entrenched cultural beliefs." Momoh suggests that the "nomadic existence" of many Somalis reduces the possibility of widespread education regarding the harmful nature of the practice. What is more troubling — beyond the fact that 98% of females are cut — is that "the practice is largely conducted by people untrained in surgery (parents, grandparents, and traditional birth attendants, using unsterile utensils)."
The crude, unskilled nature of these procedures inevitably leads to complications and long-term health problems, Momoh continues. Following the procedure, the female's wound is often rubbed with herbs, salt water, sugar, and "camel feces," and the legs are then "bound together" for several days. These procedures are often carried out without anesthesia, and quite frequently they are performed on girls "too young to give consent."
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