Fox's Continuum of Values: Nature, Society & Deforestation

Nature, Society, and Their Relationship

It would not be wrong to state that human society contrasts with nature. For a human society to flourish and develop, nature must be exploited. The exploitation of nature yields benefits for human society in the form of natural resources and other materials that are solely dependent on the natural world. While the two entities are largely in contrast, it is nevertheless vital for society to behave as a part of nature in order to survive.

To develop a better understanding of nature and society, it is important to consider each individually. Nature does not only comprise the world we live in — it comprises the entire universe. Some parts of nature are exposed to us; others remain unknown. Nature that has been revealed is referred to as known nature, while nature not yet discovered is unknown nature (Nan-Sheng & Guangwu, 2012). A third category consists of nature that is only partially known to us, such as stars and constellations, whose existence is observed but whose details remain undisclosed. Known nature is further divided into three parts:

Society, too, can be understood in three forms (Nan-Sheng & Guangwu, 2012):

Society is inherently dependent on nature for its survival, yet the relationship is two-fold. Although society continuously exploits nature by conquering it for survival and benefit, it is simultaneously shaped by nature during the process of development. Without nature, society could not progress or even form; and without society, mankind's survival would be next to impossible. Society is also capable of damaging nature — damage that, in the long run, will be fatal to society itself.

The relationship between nature and society has existed since the beginning of life. It began with mankind forming groups to hunt for food and progressed into what we call civilization today. It would be a mistake to isolate either entity, as both are deeply interdependent.

Deforestation as an Environmental Issue in Australia

Australia is a beautiful country but unfortunately suffers from a wide range of environmental problems. One of the most significant is deforestation. Deforestation was chosen as the focus of this paper because it not only causes a reduction in forest cover but also has a negative impact on water availability — a resource Australia already struggles to secure. An additional consequence of deforestation is that cleared land often becomes infertile; Australian soil rarely has the capacity to support regrowth.

To appreciate the scale of the impact, it is important to know that more than 7% of Australia's agricultural land has been negatively affected by deforestation.

Fox's Continuum of Environmental Values Explained

Fox's continuum maps environmental issues in accordance with various environmental philosophies. These philosophies have been developed to foster a better understanding of what the environment is, how it affects society, and how it interacts with nature. They also take into account the interlinked relationship between society, nature, and the environment discussed above. Fox's continuum identifies four environmental philosophies, described below.

Instrumentalism is an environmental philosophy that is anthropocentric — that is, human-centered. It holds a strong belief in the primacy of human beings and grants them the right to unrestricted access to available resources. The philosophy also maintains that nature is robust, while simultaneously regarding human beings as the dominant species, with all others as subordinate.

Managerialism stresses the complexity of nature and the idea that, even though resources exist to be exploited, they must be managed carefully to provide the maximum yield for human beings while avoiding scarcity. This philosophy is broadly in line with business management principles. Like Instrumentalism, it is also an anthropocentric philosophy.

Moving further along the continuum, the focus shifts from humans to nature. Intrinsic Rights is an eco-centric, or nature-centered, philosophy. While it does not deny the importance of human beings, it emphasizes that humans are part of nature and that other beings — animals, plants, and so on — carry their own importance for sustaining human survival. As noted earlier, a human society that wishes to survive must adapt to nature. Human beings exist within natural systems that operate independently of human needs; therefore, even though nature can be exploited for human benefit, it is important for humans to adapt themselves to natural systems, because ultimately only the fittest will survive.

Deep Ecology represents the most extreme form of eco-centrism and nature-centrism. It can also be described as green spirituality, because it calls for a transformation of human consciousness in order to identify with and sustain nature. The philosophy highlights an often overlooked reality: if human beings are violent toward nature, they are effectively being violent toward themselves, because nature functions as the system that protects them and provides the resources they need to survive. Deep Ecology therefore stresses the need to respect nature because of its fundamental importance to human life.

Conclusion

So where does the current environmental issue of deforestation in Australia sit on the continuum? It lies between Intrinsic Rights and Deep Ecology, indicating that the danger of deforestation is declining as the prevailing philosophy increasingly stresses the importance of nature for human survival. If the citizens of Australia continue to embrace these philosophies, deforestation can be minimized or even brought to an end.

Human beings have exploited nature to such an extent that natural systems may soon begin blocking the supply of resources due to scarcity. This may seem like a distant or abstract concern to many, but it is a genuine danger — one that threatens the very foundation of human survival. For short-term gains, humanity is destroying its source of long-term sustenance.

In the specific case of Australia, deforestation causes soil salinization, which in turn degrades water quality. Given that Australia already faces significant water security challenges, this compounds an already serious problem. The damage already done will take a very long time to heal, as Australian soil rarely supports the regrowth of plants or forests after clearing. Nevertheless, if land is carefully managed and further deforestation is halted, the situation can improve.

Environmental philosophies are growing more important every day as the misuse of the environment and nature increasingly threatens all forms of life. It is essential that people understand how environment, nature, and society are linked and how each depends on the others. Fox's continuum of values provides a platform for developing that understanding through philosophies that apply directly to real-life situations. Any environmental issue can be mapped onto the continuum, which helps determine whether the issue is in a stage of improvement or whether the prevailing philosophy needs to shift further along the continuum to be properly addressed.

Australia is a developed country, and its population is relatively well positioned to engage with environmental philosophies. However, in developing nations such as those in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, it is far more difficult to shift public environmental philosophy from Instrumentalism all the way through Managerialism, Intrinsic Rights, and finally to Deep Ecology. Whatever the context, Fox's continuum of values can serve as a powerful tool for developing a foundational understanding of the environmental philosophies that shape human behavior — even when people are unaware that those philosophies are at work.

Bibliography

Gruen, L., & Jamieson, D. (1994). Reflecting on Nature: Readings in Environmental Philosophies. Oxford University Press.

Harper, C. L. (2011). Environment and Society. Prentice Hall.

Jamieson, D. (1999). A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. Wiley, John and Sons Inc.

Nan-Sheng, H., & Guangwu, Z. (2012, September 4). On the relationship between man and nature. Retrieved from Council and Research in Values and Philosophy:

Robbins, P., Hintz, J., & Moore, S. A. (2011). Environment and Society. Wiley, John and Sons Inc.

Sarkar, S. (2012). Environmental Philosophy: From Theory to Practice. Wiley Blackwell.

Sutton, P. W. (2004). Nature, Environment and Society. Palgrave Macmillan.

Vincent, J. R., & Ali, R. M. (2012). Managing Natural Wealth. Taylor and Francis Inc.

WWF. (2012, September 7). WWF — Environmental problems in Australia. Retrieved from WWF — Global:

Zimmerman, M. E., Callicott, J. B., Clark, J., Warren, K. J., & Klaver, I. J. (2004). Environmental Philosophy. Prentice Hall.