This paper examines the cultural and social factors that explain why some belligerents in armed conflict commit gender-based violence while others do not. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of intersectionality, the militarization of gender, and scapegoating, the paper analyzes how cultural norms around masculinity and femininity, women's social and political power, poverty, misogyny, substance abuse, and histories of human rights violations contribute to wartime sexual violence. Empirical cases — including Boko Haram's kidnapping of Nigerian schoolgirls and rape as a weapon of war in Sudan — illustrate these dynamics. The paper concludes that culture is the common thread linking all of these factors.
The paper demonstrates effective use of theoretical framework application: it introduces three distinct conceptual lenses (intersectionality, militarization of gender, scapegoating) in a dedicated theory section and then systematically applies each framework to specific causal factors throughout the body. This approach shows readers not just what happens but why, using theory as an explanatory tool rather than mere citation decoration.
The paper opens with a broad introduction surveying the key contributing factors, followed by a theory section presenting the three frameworks. Subsequent body sections each address one factor (militarization of gender, women's power, poverty, misogyny, substance abuse, human rights history), with the theoretical lenses reappearing as relevant. A short, synthesis-focused conclusion ties culture together as the unifying theme. This factor-by-factor organization makes the argument easy to follow and each section relatively self-contained.
There are a variety of factors that can contribute to why some belligerents in armed conflict are more likely to commit gender-based violence than others. One key factor is the level of social and political power held by women within a society. When women have fewer rights and are less able to participate in public life, they are more likely to be targets of gender-based violence. Another key factor is the degree of militarization within a society. When militarization is high, there is a greater likelihood that gender-based violence will be used as a tool of warfare. Also worth considering is the level of economic development within a society, which can similarly drive gender-based violence among belligerents. When poverty levels are high, women are often forced into situations where they are more vulnerable to violence.
Consequently, there is a clear link between various social factors and the likelihood of gender-based violence occurring during armed conflict. This can tie into the presence of misogyny and patriarchal attitudes within the group committing the offenses. When women are seen as inferior to men, or their worth is primarily based on their reproductive capacity, they are more likely to be subjected to violence. Additionally, groups that condone or encourage the use of drugs and alcohol are also more likely to commit gender-based violence, as substances can lower inhibitions and increase aggressive behavior. Finally, groups with a history of committing human rights violations are also more likely to target women with violence during armed conflict. By understanding these key factors, one can begin to identify the root causes of gender-based violence in armed conflict (Henry, 2016). Ultimately, the main causes are cultural, and this paper will demonstrate why by discussing each of these factors in turn and showing how they are rooted in culture.
There is no single theory that can explain all instances of gender-based violence in conflict. However, a number of concepts can help illuminate the often complex and multi-layered nature of these experiences. For example, the concept of the "militarization of gender" highlights how conflict can entrench rigid cultural norms around masculinity and femininity, which in turn can contribute to violence (Feitz & Nagel, 2008). The concept of "scapegoating" can help explain how groups in conflict may target individuals or groups based on their perceived gender identity (MacLeod, 2019). The concept of "intersectionality" underscores how multiple factors — such as race, ethnicity, religion, and disability — can interact to create unique experiences of violence (Gill, 2018).
Each of these concepts provides valuable insight into the causes and consequences of gender-based violence in conflict. However, it is important to remember that these are theoretical frameworks, and that every instance of gender-based violence must be considered in its own context.
The militarization of gender is the process by which traditional ideas about femininity and masculinity are used to justify and legitimize war and violence. The term describes both the ways in which women and men are expected to conform to specific gender roles in the military, and the ways in which militaries and armed groups use gender as a weapon of war. Gender norms play an important role in the recruitment and training of soldiers, as well as in how wars are fought. Women are often seen as more suitable for roles such as nursing or secretarial work, while men are considered better suited for combat. This division of labor reinforces ideas about women's inferiority and men's superiority. In addition, militaries and armed groups often use rape as a weapon of war, targeting women of enemy communities in order to demoralize and humiliate them. The militarization of gender thus relies on a number of harmful stereotypes and prejudices that ultimately serve to legitimize violence.
Scapegoating occurs when individuals or groups are unfairly blamed for the problems or challenges faced by others. In the context of gender-based violence, scapegoating can take many forms. For example, men may be blamed for the violence perpetrated against women, or certain communities may be scapegoated for the broader ills of society. Scapegoating can have dangerous consequences, as it can lead to further discrimination and violence against those who are targeted. It is important to challenge scapegoating in all its forms in order to create a more inclusive and just society (MacLeod, 2019).
Intersectionality is a term used to describe the way in which different forms of discrimination intersect and interact with one another. With regard to gender-based violence, intersectionality refers to the way in which different forms of oppression can combine to create unique experiences of violence and discrimination. For example, a woman who is also a member of an ethnic minority group or who has a disability may experience higher levels of violence and discrimination than a woman who does not share these additional intersections. Intersectionality also highlights the way in which different forms of privilege can either protect or expose individuals to various forms of violence. A wealthy woman may be able to afford private security or live in a gated community, offering some protection; yet she may also be more likely to be targeted by violent criminals because of her wealth. Intersectionality is an important concept when thinking about gender-based violence because it highlights the complex reality of lived experience and the need for tailored solutions (Gill, 2018).
The militarization of gender, as both a theoretical concept and a social process, is at root a cultural process that can take generations to normalize and become embedded within a society (Feitz & Nagel, 2008). Militarization within society may lead to gender-based violence among some belligerents — and not others — because of the effect that such militarization has on the human psyche and its capacity to dehumanize people. Violence that includes a wide range of human rights abuses, such as rape, sexual slavery, forced marriage, and other forms of sexual violence, can occur among belligerents whose perspectives have been dehumanized through militarization. One empirical example is seen in the case of Sudanese military personnel committing rape in over 200 reported cases in 2014, ordered to do so by superior officers who wanted soldiers to use rape as a weapon of war (Center for Gender, 2020).
When societies become militarized, traditional gender roles and norms often become exacerbated (MacLeod, 2019). Women are typically seen as more passive and nurturing, while men are seen as more aggressive and powerful. This can create an environment in which men feel they have the right to use force against women, and where women are seen as bearing responsibility for men's actions. Militarization often also leads to an increase in weapons and firearms in society, fostering a culture of violence in which the use of force is viewed as a legitimate way to resolve conflict. Given that militaries are often male-dominated institutions — which can create an environment in which women are not respected or valued — it is not difficult to see how such a culture can negatively affect some belligerents. This can result in some military personnel feeling that they can mistreat women with impunity (Gill, 2018; Henry, 2016). All of these factors contribute to gender-based violence in armed conflicts from a cultural standpoint.
Culture is the thread that underscores the various factors contributing to why some wartime belligerents engage in gender-based violence while others do not. Culture runs through every society and person, but not every state or individual shares the same culture or is shaped by it in the same way. Cultures that value human life and respect women tend to be less likely to commit gender-based violence in wartime. However, outcomes ultimately depend on the individual, the circumstances, and the various factors present at any given moment.
Intersectionality, the militarization of gender, and scapegoating all help to explain how gender-based violence emerges in armed conflict, and culture helps identify the common thread found among belligerents who act in this manner. By recognizing culture as the root cause linking poverty, misogyny, militarization, substance abuse, and historical human rights violations, researchers and policymakers can better target interventions that address gender-based violence at its source.
Center for Gender. (2020). The intersection of gender, power and violence in armed conflict. Retrieved from
Feitz, L., & Nagel, J. (2008). The militarization of gender and sexuality in the Iraq War. In Women in the military and in armed conflict (pp. 201–225). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Gill, A. (2018). Survivor-centered research: Towards an intersectional gender-based violence movement. Journal of Family Violence, 33(8), 559–562.
Henry, N. (2016). Theorizing wartime rape: Deconstructing gender, sexuality, and violence. Gender & Society, 30(1), 44–56.
Lewis, S. (2014). The use of gender-based violence during armed conflicts. Retrieved from
MacLeod, R. (2019). Liberating female scapegoats: Mimetic theory, feminist theory, and the biblical representation of gendered violence and victimhood (Doctoral dissertation, Australian Catholic University).
UN. (2014). Women policy brief. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/ungass2016/Contributions/UN/Gender_and_Drugs_-_UN_Women_Policy_Brief.pdf
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