Debunking the "Great Men" Myth in Spanish Conquest History

Introduction

Matthew Restall's Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest covers considerable ground when it comes to the historiography of early modern exploration. One of the most persistent approaches in that literature is the concept of "great men" — singular, heroic individuals whose exceptional qualities supposedly drove the course of history. That concept is, by contemporary standards, both overstated and under-examined. This essay argues that while the "great men" framework was customary in classical historical writing, a modern reading of the evidence — particularly as marshaled by Restall — reveals that what made figures like Cortés and Columbus supposedly "great" was, in fact, ordinary behavior entirely consistent with the norms and imperial structures of their time.

The Myth of Great Men in the Age of Conquest

Restall makes prescient and honest points about men like Columbus and Cortés. Beyond the fact that many figures of that era are still treated as heroes worthy of the holidays assigned in their honor — Columbus Day being the most obvious example — what they actually did was neither abnormal nor significantly different from what others in comparable positions of power accomplished. Columbus is celebrated as the man who "discovered" the Americas, yet there is clear evidence that Indigenous peoples had long inhabited the Caribbean and the Americas upon his arrival. Moreover, his voyages were commissioned and financed by the Spanish Crown — he did not act as a lone visionary but as an agent of empire.

Restall also draws attention to the broader imperial projects of Spain and Portugal. Two other names central to the "great men" myth are Cortés and Pizarro. Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that culminated in the fall of the Aztec Empire. Francisco Pizarro similarly led the campaign that brought down the Inca Empire. In all three cases, these men were among the first to accomplish what they did at the scale they achieved it. However, to characterize their behavior as unexpected or extraordinary is incorrect. As history repeatedly demonstrates, from that era onward, it was common practice for the Spanish, the Portuguese, the British, and the French alike to conquer peoples and territories across the globe in the service of their respective crowns (Restall, 2003).

Restall's Critique of Columbus, Cortés, and Pizarro

Restall draws on specific language that illuminates both the intent and the mythology surrounding these figures. The mission of the men described above was, plainly, to conquer and control. Restall quotes Francisco López de Gómara as stating that "the Conquest of Mexico and the conversion of the peoples of New Spain can and should be included with the histories of the world, not only because it was well done but because it was very great" (Restall, 2003, p. 1). That invocation of "greatness" aside, this is an accurate and blunt description of what Spanish imperial policy intended. Columbus, similarly, is celebrated for his "discovery" — an event ranked by many as among the most significant in all of recorded history, alongside the invention of the printing press. This reverential view persisted well past Columbus's own lifetime: Abbé Raynal expressed similar sentiments in 1770, and Adam Smith did so again roughly six years later (Restall, 2003, p. 2).

Restall uses the word "facile" to describe the standard treatment of these exploits (Restall, 2003, p. 4). He is careful to note, however, that this characterization is not meant to minimize or dismiss what occurred. Rather, his point is that these events must be understood as part of a broader pattern of social and imperial transformation — and that a far larger cast of actors was involved than the "great men" narrative acknowledges. The participation, often coerced, of Africans and Native Americans cannot be ignored or written out of the historical record. In Restall's view, the picture has been distorted so severely that figures like Columbus are better understood through allegory than through the reverential accounts that have long been treated as straightforward historical truth (Restall, 2003, p. 6).

Conclusion

Even if it is romanticized and held in a position of honor far from deserved, what the "heroes" of that day accomplished was, in its outcomes, impressive. The European presence in the Americas did change the world permanently, and the scale of that transformation should not be minimized. However, the methods by which that transformation was achieved were far less remarkable. Europeans had pursued conquest, colonization, and subjugation — both within and beyond Europe — throughout recorded history. What Columbus, Cortés, and Pizarro did was consistent with that long tradition. To understand the Spanish colonization of the Americas accurately, it is necessary to see these men not as singular geniuses or heroes, but as capable agents of systems and structures that long preceded them and extended far beyond them.

References

Restall, M. (2003). Seven myths of the Spanish conquest. Oxford University Press.