Research Paper Graduate 6,720 words

Grief, John Henryism & Suicide Loss in African American Mothers

~34 min read 7 sections Psychology

Abstract

This paper presents the methodology and theoretical framework of a quantitative research study examining grief severity among African American mothers who have lost a son to suicide. Drawing on a post-positivist philosophy and inductive research approach, the study employs hierarchical multiple linear regression (HMLR) with snowball and respondent-driven sampling across several urban cities with high African American populations. Key variables include perceived stigma of suicide, John Henryism active coping, and the belief that suicide stems from societal causes. The paper outlines the instruments used, discusses sampling challenges unique to this understudied population, and presents theoretical and practical implications grounded in Clark and colleagues' (1999) biopsychosocial contextual model of stress. Expected findings and directions for future research are also addressed.

Key Takeaways

Research Methodology and Philosophy: Post-positivist, inductive, longitudinal research design rationale
Research Design and Sampling Procedure: Quantitative correlational design and snowball sampling approach
Variables and Measurement Instruments: Stigma, John Henryism, grief, and depression scales described
Increasing the Foundation of Understanding: Literature gaps on African American mothers and suicide grief
Theoretical and Practical Implications: Biopsychosocial model applied to therapeutic and pastoral care
Research Implications and the Strong Black Woman: Superwoman stereotype, stress, and mental health consequences
Expected Findings and Future Directions: Four directional hypotheses and future research recommendations

✍️ How to write this paper — guide, tools & examples ▾

What makes this paper effective

The paper systematically layers its methodology using the "Research Onion" framework, moving from philosophy through design to instruments, giving readers a clear rationale for every methodological choice.
Each measurement instrument is described with specific psychometric data — Cronbach's alphas, test-retest reliability coefficients, and criterion-related validity statistics — demonstrating graduate-level rigor.
The paper connects methodology directly to a theoretically grounded framework (Clark et al.'s 1999 biopsychosocial contextual model), ensuring that all design decisions are justified by relevant theory.

Key academic technique demonstrated

The paper exemplifies the use of hierarchical multiple linear regression (HMLR) to test moderation hypotheses. By entering demographic covariates first and study variables in subsequent steps, the design isolates the predictive contribution of each independent variable on grief severity while controlling for confounds — a sophisticated approach well-suited to a sensitive, understudied population.

Structure breakdown

The paper opens with a methodology chapter covering research philosophy (post-positivism), approach (inductive), and timeline (longitudinal). It then presents the quantitative correlational design, sampling strategy (snowball and respondent-driven sampling), and five instruments covering stigma, societal beliefs about suicide, John Henryism, grief, and depression covariates. The latter half shifts to substantive discussion: a literature review of gaps in African American suicide grief research, followed by theoretical, practical, and research implications, and closes with specific directional hypotheses (H1–H4) and future research recommendations.

📘 Read the full research paper guide → Generate citations → Build an outline → Draft a literature review → 📚 More Poetry examples →

Essay 6,720 words

Research Methodology and Philosophy

This methodology chapter seeks to accomplish two goals: (1) explain the methodology this research adopts, and (2) establish the validity of the adopted methodology for this particular research work. To address these aims clearly, this section is divided into three sub-sections: (1) Research Philosophy, (2) Research Approach, and (3) Research Type and Timeline.

Through this segmentation, the methodology will be understood as carefully planned, cogent, and applicable to all issues under examination, while allowing exploration of all topics relevant to the study (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2007). The segmentation also allows the researcher to explain the research process along the lines suggested by the "Research Process Onion" methodology framework (Saunders et al., 2012, p. 83), such that the systematic, progressive steps taken during the course of the study are illustrated clearly.

1. Research Philosophy

Trochim (2006) found in his exploration that most research work focuses on the perception that, by achieving the objectives of the work, the academic world will benefit toward understanding and making sense of our environment, ambient conditions, and processes — and in so doing, understand how people arrive at varying inferences about the same phenomenon, whether in individual or collective capacities. Two main thought processes drive this assumption. The first is Positivism, a perspective that seeks to conduct measurable performance appraisal by experiencing a process or phenomenon in a quantified manner: positivist scientists seek to establish facts based on encounters that can be quantified and measured. The second is Post-Positivism, alternatively known as the "constructivist" framework, which holds that singular experiences and observations lead us to believe that living beings and the world they inhabit follow certain patterns. Both these frameworks are vital when considering traditional approaches to research studies.

According to positivist thought, science helps scientists assimilate the real value of things and the logic and rationality underlying them, making it simpler to control actions and activities. The positivist is inclined to deduce rules, regulations, and laws through practical analysis and measurement. For the majority of those adhering to positivism, objectivity of purpose and inference is an ingrained attitude toward research, hence the inclination toward practical affirmation of facts. The post-positivist, by contrast, contends that absolute objectivity is not possible at all times. All experiences, according to this framework, invariably involve perception that is subjective to some extent. This, in turn, means a certain amount of bias enters any research study. Fair-mindedness, according to post-positivists, is a social construct (Trochim, 2006). For the purposes of this study, the post-positivist approach is the best fit and has been accepted as the guiding methodology for arriving at rational inferences.

2. Research Approach

According to Trochim (2006), there are essentially two methodologies used for exploratory work: inductive and deductive. Deductive thinking, alternatively understood as a "top-down" procedure, starts from broader concepts and experiences and moves progressively toward narrowed, specific questions — the objective of the study. Inductive thinking, commonly called the "bottom-up" strategy, approaches research from a specific point and expands outward to reach the full range of thoughts and practices relevant to the singular origin of the research work. This research has chosen to adopt the inductive methodology to reach its objectives.

3. Research Type and Timeline

The path taken by a research study bears direct correspondence with its framework. The essential frameworks for an exploratory work are: (1) cross-sectional and (2) longitudinal studies. In the cross-sectional method, the researcher focuses on a determined frame and time period — meaning only a portion of the whole concept or objective is examined. By contrast, in a longitudinal study, the researcher spreads focus over larger time scales; independent variables of considerable scope, as well as more dependent scales, are incorporated, and variations encountered as the study progresses over the time scale are accounted for when assembling the final outcome (Trochim, 2006). In this particular study, given the available research time and the broad potential influence of the findings on the population at large, a longitudinal configuration has been adopted.

6 Sections Hidden · 3,450 words

Research Design and Sampling Procedure620 words

The research design of this study is quantitative, with a correlational cross-sectional approach. Certain cities were chosen, and from these, data were obtained with…

Variables and Measurement Instruments780 words

The surveys described below were used for measurement of the study variables. Alignment with the study's constructs guided instrument selection.…

Increasing the Foundation of Understanding520 words

There have been few clinical or research studies concerning the topic of grief surrounding suicide in African American mothers (CDC, 2011; Barnes, 2006; Day-Vines, 2007). Even fewer have examined the perspective of the mother's feelings (Day-Vines,…

Theoretical and Practical Implications560 words

From the perspective of Clark and colleagues (1999), stress is perceived to be affected by culturally derived attitudes, such as the belief that suicide originates in societal causes and that an attached stigma accompanies suicide. The grief of African American mothers upon loss of a son…

Research Implications and the Strong Black Woman490 words

In the model of Clark and colleagues (1999), stress can affect the individual to the extent that a health crisis may emerge — ranging from less-than-optimal functioning in the workplace or personal life to suicide itself. As stated by Boss (2002), an individual's personal beliefs and values…

Expected Findings and Future Directions480 words

For research question 1, H1 is the alternative hypothesis: controlling for the five maternal factors, the severity of grief in African American mothers can be predicted by the perceived stigma due to suicide. Thus, increased grief severity will be predicted by perceived stigma, guided…

View Full Document

References

American Association for Suicidology. (2013). African Americans and suicidology. Retrieved from

Barnes, D. H. (2006). The aftermath of suicide among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 335–348.

Beauboeuf-LaFontant, T. (2009). Behind the mask of the strong Black woman: Voice and the embodiment of a costly performance. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Boelen, P. A., & Prigerson, H. G. (2013). Prolonged grief disorder as a new diagnostic category in DSM-5. Complicated Grief, 85–98.

Boelen, P. A., Van Den Bout, J., & De Keijser, J. (2003). Traumatic grief as a disorder distinct from bereavement-related depression and anxiety: A replication study with bereaved mental health care patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1339–1341.

Boss, P. G., Doherty, W. J., LaRossa, R., Schumm, W. R., & Steinmetz, S. K. (Eds.). Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual approach. New York: Plenum.

Bronder, E. C., Speight, S. L., Witherspoon, K. M., & Thomas, A. J. (2013). John Henryism, depression, and perceived social support in Black women. Journal of Black Psychology.

Browne, K. (2005). Snowball sampling: Using social networks to research non-heterosexual women. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 47–60.

Burke, L. A., Neimeyer, R. A., Holland, J. M., Dennard, S., Oliver, L., & Shear, M. K. (2014). Inventory of complicated spiritual grief: Development and validation of a new measure. Death Studies, 1–12.

Caro, D. H., & Cortés, D. (2012). Measuring family socioeconomic status: An illustration using data from PIRLS 2006. IeRI Monograph Series: Issues and Methodologies in Large Scale Assessments, 1(5), 9–35.

CDC. (2011). Web-based statistics query and reporting system. Retrieved from

Chatard, A., & Selimbegović, L. (2011). When self-destructive thoughts flash through the mind: Failure to meet standards affects the accessibility of suicide-related thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 587.

Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. T. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. London: Routledge Falmer.

Crosby, A., & Molock, S. D. (2006). Suicidal behaviors in the African American community. Journal of Black Psychology, 32(3), 1–9.

Day-Vines, N. L. (2007). The escalating incidence of suicide among African Americans: Implications for counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 85, 370–380.

Fiegelman, B., & Fiegelman, W. (2011). Suicide survivor support groups: Comings and goings, Part I. Illness, Crisis, & Loss, 19(1), 57–71.

Fiegelman, W., Gorman, B. S., & Jordan, J. R. (2009). Stigmatization and suicide bereavement. Death Studies, 33(7), 591–608.

Gates, G. J. (2011). Recommendations for improving measurement of intimate partner relationships. Bowling Green, OH: National Center for Family & Marriage Research.

Gibson, J., Gallagher, M., & Jenkins, M. (2010). The experiences of parents readjusting to the workplace following the death of a child by suicide. Death Studies, 34(6), 500–528. doi:10.1080/07481187.2010.482879

Gloria, A. M., Castellanos, J., Kanagui-Muñoz, M., & Rico, M. A. (2012). Assessing Latina/o undergraduates' depressive symptomatology: Comparisons of the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the Center for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale, and the Self-Report Depression Scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 34(1), 160–181.

Hann-Morrison, D. (2006). Even Superwoman needs to cry sometimes: An intimacy guide for men partnering with strong Black women. Charleston, SC: Booksurge.

Harper, M., O'Connor, R., Dickson, A., & O'Carroll, R. (2011). Mothers' continuing bonds and ambivalence to personal mortality after the death of their child: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 16(2), 203–214.

Hunn, V. L., & Craig, C. D. (2009). Depression, sociocultural factors, and African American women. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 37(2), 83–93.

James, S. A. (1994). John Henryism and the health of African Americans. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 18(2), 163–182.

James, S. A., Keenan, N. L., Strogatz, D. S., Browning, S. R., & Garrett, J. M. (1992). Socioeconomic status, John Henryism, and blood pressure in black adults: The Pitt County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 135(1), 59–67.

Joe, S., Canetto, S. S., & Romer, D. (2008). Advancing prevention research on the role of culture in suicide prevention. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 38(3), 354–362. doi:10.1521/suli.2008.38.3.354

Jordan, J. R. (2012). Devastating losses: How parents cope with the death of a child to suicide or drugs. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Kneeland, L. (2006). African American suffering and suicide under slavery. [University]. Retrieved from

Knight, M. T. D., Furnham, A. F., & Lester, D. (2000). Lay theories of suicide. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 453–467.

Kodaka, M., Potuvan, V., Inagaki, M., & Yamada, M. (2011). A systematic review of scales that measure attitudes toward suicide. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 57(4), 338–361.

Laurie, A., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2008). African Americans in bereavement: Grief as a function of ethnicity. OMEGA — Journal of Death and Dying, 57(2), 173–193.

Lester, D., & Bean, J. (1992). Attribution of causes to suicide. The Journal of Social Psychology, 132(5), 679–680.

Lobb, E. A., Kristjanson, L. J., Aoun, S. M., Monterosso, L., Halkett, G. K., & Davies, A. (2010). Predictors of complicated grief: A systematic review of empirical studies. Death Studies, 34(8), 673–698.

Loibl, L. M., & Voracek, M. (2007). Psychometric properties and correlates of the Lester-Bean Attributions of Causes to Suicide Scale (German Form). Psychological Reports, 101(1), 47–52.

Maple, M., Edwards, H. E., Minichiello, V., & Plummer, D. (2013). Still part of the family: The importance of physical, emotional, and spiritual memorial places and spaces for parents bereaved through the suicide death of their son or daughter. Mortality, 18(1), 54–71.

Matthews, D. D., Hammond, W. P., Nuru-Jeter, A., Cole-Lewis, Y., & Melvin, T. (2013). Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among African American men: The mediating and moderating roles of masculine self-reliance and John Henryism. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 35.

Merritt, M. M., McCallum, T. J., & Fritsch, T. (2011). How much striving is too much? John Henryism active coping predicts worse daily cortisol responses for African American but not White female dementia family caregivers. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19(5), 451.

Mitchell, A. M., Kim, Y., Prigerson, H. G., & Mortimer-Stephens, M. (2004). Complicated grief in survivors of suicide. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 25(1), 12–18.

Neighbors, H. W., Njai, R., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). Race, ethnicity, John Henryism, and depressive symptoms: The National Survey of American Life Adult Reinterview. Research in Human Development, 41(1/2), 71–87.

Noy, C. (2008). Sampling knowledge: The hermeneutics of snowball sampling in qualitative research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 11(4), 327–344.

Perry, B. L., Pullen, E. L., & Oser, C. B. (2012). Too much of a good thing? Psychosocial resources, gendered racism, and suicidal ideation among low socioeconomic status African American women. Social Psychology Quarterly, 75, 334–361.

Prabhu, S., Molinari, V., Bowers, T., & Lomax, J. (2010). Role of the family in suicide prevention: An attachment and family systems perspective. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 74(4), 301–327. doi:10.1521/bumc.2010.74.4.301

Prigerson, H. G., Bierhals, A. J., Kasl, S. V., Reynolds, C. F. III, Shear, M. K., Newsom, J. T., & Jacobs, S. (1996). Complicated grief as a disorder distinct from bereavement-related depression and anxiety: A replication study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 1484–1486.

Prigerson, H. G., Maciejewski, P. K., Reynolds, C. F. III, Bierhals, A. J., Newsom, J. T., Fasiczka, A., Frank, E., Doman, J., & Miller, M. (1995). The inventory of complicated grief: A scale to measure maladaptive symptoms of loss. Psychiatry Research, 59(1–2), 65–79.

Rosenfield, S., & Mouzon, D. (2013). Gender and mental health. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 277–296). New York, NY: Springer.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2012). Research methods for business students (3rd ed.). London: Prentice Hall.

Sharpe, T. L., Joe, S., & Taylor, K. C. (2012). Suicide and homicide bereavement among African Americans: Implications for survivor research and practice. OMEGA, 66(2), 153–172.

Simms-Brown, R. J. (1982). The female in the Black family: Dominant mate or helpmate? Journal of Black Psychology, 9(1), 45–55.

Skoog, G. R., & Ciecka, J. E. (2010). Measuring years of inactivity, years in retirement, time to retirement, and age at retirement within the Markov model. Demography, 47(3), 609–628.

Smarr, K. L., & Keefer, A. L. (2011). Measures of depression and depressive symptoms. Arthritis Care & Research, 63(S11), S454–S466.

Subramanyam, M. A., James, S. A., Diez-Roux, A. V., Hickson, D. A., Sarpong, D., Sims, M., & Wyatt, S. B. (2013). Socioeconomic status, John Henryism and blood pressure among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study. Social Science & Medicine, 93, 139–146.

Sung, S. C., Dryman, M. T., Marks, E., Shear, M. K., Ghesquiere, A., Fava, M., & Simon, N. M. (2011). Complicated grief among individuals with major depression: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated features. Journal of Affective Disorders, 134(1), 453–458.

Sydor, A. (2013). Conducting research into hidden or hard-to-reach populations. Nurse Researcher, 20(3), 33–37.

Treiman, D. J., Lu, Y., & Qi, Y. (2012). New approaches to demographic data collection. Chinese Sociological Review, 44(3), 56–92.

Trochim, W. (2006). The research methods knowledge base (2nd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog Publishing.

Utsey, S. O., Hook, J. N., & Stanard, P. (2007). A re-examination of cultural factors that mitigate risk and promote resilience in relation to African American suicide: A review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Death Studies, 31, 399–416.

Vatan, S., Genç, Walker, & Lester, D. (2010). Lay theories of suicide: Turkish and American students. Suicidology One, 1, 28–33.

Wagner, B., Keller, V., Knaevelsrud, C., & Maercker, A. (2012). Social acknowledgement as a predictor of post-traumatic stress and complicated grief after witnessing assisted suicide. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 58(4), 381–385.

Walker, R. L., Lester, D., & Joe, S. (2006). Lay theories of suicide: An examination of culturally relevant suicide beliefs and attributions among African Americans and European Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 320–334.

Wang, X., Trivedi, R., Treiber, F., & Snieder, H. (2005). Genetic and environmental influences on anger expression, John Henryism, and stressful life events: The Georgia Cardiovascular Twin Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(1), 16–23.

Wang, Y. P., & Gorenstein, C. (2013). Assessment of depression in medical patients: A systematic review of the utility of the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Clinics, 68(9), 1274–1287.

Woods, A. M., Zimmerman, L., Carlin, E., Hill, A., & Kaslow, N. J. (2013). Motherhood, reasons for living, and suicidality among African American women. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(4), 600.

Woods-Giscomb, C. L. (2010). Superwoman schema: African American women's views on stress, strength, and health. Qualitative Health Research, 20(5), 668–683.

Key Concepts in This Paper

John Henryism Suicide Stigma Complicated Grief Biopsychosocial Model Snowball Sampling African American Mothers Perceived Stigma Societal Causes of Suicide Strong Black Woman Grief Severity Post-Positivism