History of Management: Ancient Civilizations to Industrial Revolution

Introduction

At different times throughout history, different management and leadership strategies were utilized by civilizations. Oftentimes, civilizations based what services to provide — and how to provide them — upon the particular needs of their citizens at that time. In the vast majority of cases, these societies existed long before there were terms or coursework offered in the management or leadership arena. Beginning with Ancient Mesopotamia, this paper treks around the world to varying civilizations, noting how societies managed the particular needs of their citizens given the resources at hand, and how they determined the best ways to address those needs.

Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt

Through the organizational behavior of the Sumerian priests and the leadership of Hammurabi, the management style of Ancient Mesopotamia is revealed. Specifically, in each example, writings, codes, and norms were used not only as a means to manage the people, but also as a means of managing relationships with the Gods (George, 1972). In ancient times, the masses believed they were at the mercy of the Gods' arbitrary decisions, which caused many to feel helpless. Thus, leadership of the era used codes to regulate relationships and daily living, and a system of writing to make business transactions accountable (Saggs, 1989).

As early as 5000 B.C., Sumerian priests used writing and accounting principles to record business transactions and to keep track of the property of the church and state. In order to infuse honesty into business transactions, Sumerian leaders devised managerial controls by requiring priests to provide written accountings — such as receipts — of donations given to local agencies. In addition to using codes and written records of property and money, this period is also notable for having one of the first leaders, Sargon, who was able to inspire and create a unified empire through his personality and his ability to build, maintain, and administer an entire empire (Snell, 1997, p. 32).

Hammurabi also exemplifies notable management techniques of this region during ancient times, as he used codes and laws to bring order and to codify the classist, patriarchal norms within society (Saggs, 1989). Within the codes, the philosophical values and virtues of the society were reflected. For instance, the laws codified the existence of three distinct classes of human resources: nobles, freemen, and slaves. Further, the laws demonstrated a commitment to strict justice, with severe penalties based upon the class of the person who was victimized — higher penalties were imposed when the crime was against a person of higher class. In the domestic realm, the laws also protected men as heads of household; a husband could even have his wife drowned for neglecting her house and humiliating him (Kries, 2010).

Ancient Mesopotamia thrived economically and politically for many years due to the ability of its leaders — such as Sargon and Hammurabi — to bring order and structure to society so that agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship could flourish. They are remembered as an ingenious society that used management of resources through written laws to harness the spirit of its workforce (Buccellati). Accordingly, Mesopotamia earned its reputation as the cradle of civilization. As city-states emerged and cities grew larger, more laws were enacted and bureaucracy kept communities organized and sanitary (Saggs, 1989, p. 63).

Ancient Egypt is perhaps best known for constructing the pyramids. To undertake such a project, Egypt necessarily developed management structures for planning, organization, and controlling the development and decision-making of such an ambitious endeavor (Erman, 1984). Thus, in addition to being known for the pyramids and other public displays of honor, the Ancient Egyptians are also remembered for their use of writing, education, and philosophy to create an organized and productive society.

The enormity of building even one pyramid is demonstrated by the example of King Cheops. This pyramid alone contains 2.3 million blocks of stone, each of which had to be quarried, cut to a precise size and shape, cured, transported by boat for two to three days, moved to the construction site, and finally shaped and smoothed to fit perfectly in place. Accomplishing this took twenty-three years and over 20,000 workers. Accordingly, the Egyptians understood the need for organization and planning and implemented procedures for submitting written requests; they also began using staff for consulting purposes prior to making decisions (Erman, 1984).

In its process of building the pyramids and an organizational structure, Egypt also became the first civilization to use paper — or papyrus — to communicate and to preserve ideas (Ruiz, 2001, p. 129). Egypt believed in the importance of using writing to record stories as well as the day-to-day functioning of government and religion. As a result of Egypt's desire to preserve its culture not only through hieroglyphics and wall paintings but also through papyrus, we have evidence today of Egypt's beliefs in social justice, monotheism, monogamy, education, government, and morality.

Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire

Ancient Greece of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. is considered by some to have provided the foundation for Western civilization. In addition to being known for the founding of democracy and a successful agrarian system, Ancient Greece boasts a rich philosophical tradition. As a result, many management principles utilized in modern societies have Greek philosophy as their underlying tenets. In fact, the Greeks were the first society to consistently demonstrate leadership beyond the military and political arenas, extending into philosophy, science, and history (Wren, 1994, p. 19). Studying this culture helps us better comprehend the underpinnings of management, leadership, inquiry, and motivation theories that continue to exist in modern societies today.

Philosophers Socrates (469–399 B.C.) and, thereafter, Plato (428–348 B.C.) provided the definition of management as a skill separate from technical knowledge and experience. Socrates was the first public figure to document the importance of delegating authority. As a result, Plato and Aristotle later developed Socrates' theory of work delegation to include commentary regarding the direct relationship between specialization of work, division of labor, and efficient work practice (Wren, 1994, p. 19). In The Republic, Plato describes the importance of carefully selecting and training young men not only with specialization and expertise in mind, but to develop in them the appropriate personalities and skills necessary to serve as leaders (Pindur and Rogers, 1995, p. 59). In the area of problem-solving, Plato also elaborates on the Socratic method, by which a problem is solved by breaking it down into a series of questions whose answers lead to the solution. The modern world continues to use the Socratic method in all walks of life, including the scientific method, in order to solve complex problems (Coppens, n.d.).

Greek historian Thucydides (460–395 B.C.) wrote what is considered the first true treatise on leadership. In his chronicle of the Peloponnesian Wars, Thucydides stated his belief that while leadership was necessary for democracy, it was also dangerous within democracy without appropriate checks and balances (Warner, 1997, p. 620). Thus, many modern societies and corporations are founded upon democratic notions with the realistic understanding that for leadership to be effective, checks and balances must be built in. Overall, the Greeks provided future cultures with insights into human and group behavior, demonstrating that in both private and public spheres there is an important place for reason and inquiry-based analysis.

At its height in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., the Roman Empire encompassed over 2.2 million square miles and a population of sixty million people, with an intricate network of roads, technological ingenuity, and numerous advances in art and architecture. To manage this vast area, the Romans utilized a combination of management strategies: a republican form of government with checks and balances, a disciplined military, a system of delegation, a prioritization of education, and a network of political alliances.

The emperors of the Roman Empire provide specific examples of management styles ranging from delegation to the formation of alliances. Roman Emperor Diocletian (244–311 A.D.) brought the art of delegation to fruition by dividing the Empire into 101 provinces grouped into thirteen dioceses within four main geographic regions (George, 1972). This division allowed Diocletian to delegate authority and develop a chain of command within the provinces (Osigweh, 1985). Emperor Julius Caesar, meanwhile, masterfully demonstrated how building alliances enables one to achieve power and rise to the top of the leadership hierarchy even in a society as vast as Ancient Rome (Abbott, 1901, p. 385).

The Roman Empire also provides an example of organizational systems through its republican system of government, in which no single man held the power to make law. Power was balanced among three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. Rome's Senate was designed as a body separate from that of the Emperor so as to avoid tyranny by a single leader. Through the advent of the Senate, the Romans laid the groundwork for the leadership structures of Britain and other modern nations that did not want one ruler to be able to dictate laws to an entire people (Abbott, 1901, p. 385).

Conclusion

Even as far back as Ancient Mesopotamia, issues and policies related to the management of people and resources are evident within society. Ancient Mesopotamia presents a unique case since its use of codes and laws for managing society was done in response to the masses' feelings of helplessness in relation to the omnipresent power of the Gods over their lives. Mesopotamia boasts one of the first leaders, Sargon, who unified others through a combination of personality and administrative ability. The Sumerian culture demanded a uniform accounting of property and donations — an accountability for money and resources. Hammurabi set forth a series of codes reflecting the society's values and virtues of the time. Through their leaders and codes of law, this civilization earned the name "The Cradle of Civilization," referring to the birth of an orderly and successful society.

Ancient Egypt is best known for its pyramids, but behind the pyramids lay a management structure also worthy of remembrance. Without the ability to manage such an endeavor, the construction of these enormous wonders would never have been accomplished. As a result of the process of constructing these wonders, the Egyptians implemented procedures for submitting written requests and used consultation as a means of obtaining information to inform the best decisions in a given set of circumstances. Ancient Greece is often thought of as the foundation for Western civilization because it contained a population committed to both democracy and philosophy. From the study of the Greeks, the philosophical underpinnings of management are brought to bear through Socrates and Plato, both of whom believed that management is a skill separate from the substantive or technical knowledge required for any particular job or enterprise. This civilization also valued problem-solving through structured procedures such as the Socratic method.

Ancient Rome exemplifies the successful working of several different management strategies: a republican form of government, a disciplined military, a system of delegation, a prioritization of education, and a network of political alliances. Emperor Diocletian should be remembered for utilizing delegation as a means of attaining and maintaining power over a vast empire and populace. Emperor Julius Caesar illustrates the power of building alliances through his rise to the top of the leadership ranks. At this time, there was no separate study of management; instead, people followed the lead of elected officials who provided a voice for them in the newly founded Senate.

While the Byzantine Empire adopted Christianity at the time of its origination in approximately 364 A.D., the Empire itself was not a forward-looking one. After the sixth century, the Empire entered a dark era marked by the plague and Arab conquests. Following these years, there was a brief emergence of intellectual thought and practice; however, little was added to the history of management — possibly a result of the government's rule by strict religious beliefs. On a positive note, the Byzantines respected writing and grammar and consequently contributed greatly to the development of a system for translating and transmitting classical knowledge. During the Islamic Golden Age between the 8th and 13th centuries, Muslim culture thrived. Al-Ghazali cautioned leaders to keep lines of communication open between group members and leadership and emphasized that the leader must demonstrate a model of moral character.

The Crusades began in 1095, launched by the Pope in an attempt to regain control of the Holy Land. For hundreds of years to follow, the Catholic Church became increasingly tolerant of violence and war in defense of its religious faith. During this time, kings were kings and men were chivalrous in public. Behind closed doors, knights collaborated around a round table so that no one person appeared to be the leader and all thoughts were deemed equally important.

The 12th Century Renaissance marked a time of regrowth in many ways, including the rise of educational institutions and new modes of problem-solving. This civilization provides an example of how people can work together by breaking down the stages of production and assigning each person or group one stage. Had they not been afflicted with the Black Plague, this society might have continued to accomplish significant feats. The Gothic period, meanwhile, was an age in which people built in the architectural style of the Ancient Romans. Due to the enormity of the task of building Gothic cathedrals, proper leadership and management — such as long-range planning and systems of project governance — were critical.

The Renaissance period from the 14th to the 16th centuries boasted a renewal of learning and a sense of rationality as applied to political issues. Notable individuals such as Niccolò Machiavelli, John Calvin, and Martin Luther had a lasting effect on the management and leadership of the societies in which they lived, promulgating the need for diligent work and the glorification of God through labor. During the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, reason and knowledge became the primary tools in the search for truth, and it was broadly understood that all people have the ability to function properly in society, to make choices, to obey laws, and to adhere to moral standards.

In the mid-18th and 19th centuries, the Industrial Revolution brought significant changes to agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and power. Significant individuals of this time period included Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill, both of whom provided numerous theses on how to make the production process more efficient. Robert Owen demonstrated that approaches to management may differ widely based on individual values and philosophies. And with the formal emergence of scientific management theory under Frederick Taylor, the study of management as a distinct discipline was at last firmly established — drawing, as this paper has shown, upon thousands of years of accumulated human experience in organizing people, resources, and purpose.