Institutionalized Racism, White Privilege, and Inequality in America
This essay examines the historical roots and contemporary manifestations of institutionalized racism in the United States. Beginning with the ideological foundations laid in colonial America — including philosophical texts that declared Black inferiority — the paper traces how white supremacist thinking evolved into systemic discrimination, immigration restriction, and cultural appropriation of Native American identity. The essay also addresses white privilege and "white culture" as persistent norms embedded in American institutions, the struggles of Chinese immigrants seeking legal entry, and the shrinking middle class. Together, these threads reveal an America where racial and economic inequality remain deeply intertwined, raising questions about upward mobility and the true accessibility of the American Dream.
- Introduction: America's Legacy of Racism and Inequality: Frames America's history of racial and class oppression
- The Ideological Roots of Institutionalized Racism: Hume and Kant's philosophy underpinning racial hierarchy
- White Privilege and the Norms of White Culture: White culture as institutional default and standard
- Immigration, Prejudice, and the Fight for Entry: Chinese immigrants challenging exclusion through habeas corpus
- Cultural Appropriation and Native American Identity: Misappropriation of Native American identity by white culture
- The American Dream and the Shrinking Middle Class: Class divide undermining upward mobility and opportunity
- Conclusion: Progress and Persistent Inequality: Progress made but inequality still threatens stability
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What makes this paper effective
- The paper draws on a diverse range of sources — literary criticism, sociology, immigration history, and sports studies — to build a multi-dimensional argument about systemic inequality.
- It moves logically from historical origins (colonial-era philosophical racism) to contemporary manifestations (white privilege, immigration policy, class divide), giving the argument a clear developmental arc.
- Direct quotations are integrated purposefully, with each supporting a specific claim rather than substituting for analysis.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates thematic synthesis across disciplines — connecting philosophy (Hume and Kant), sociology (white culture norms), legal history (Chinese habeas corpus cases), and cultural studies (Native American mascots) under a single argumentative umbrella. This cross-disciplinary approach strengthens the central claim that racism is systemic rather than isolated.
Structure breakdown
The essay opens with a provocative framing question about what America has become, then moves through discrete thematic sections: the philosophical origins of racial hierarchy, white privilege in institutions, immigration discrimination, cultural appropriation, and economic class division. Each section builds on the last, and the conclusion ties together all strands by calling for continued progress on inequality. The Works Cited page follows MLA format.
Introduction: America's Legacy of Racism and Inequality
America has long held on to the beliefs of its past. Built on slavery and oppression, the United States dealt with people of color by enslaving them, segregating them, and — more recently — deporting them. While the U.S. is constantly working toward ending racism within its borders, a persistent racial and immigrant problem continues to affect those residing in the country. Furthermore, a growing class divide has left the top 1% earning the vast majority of wealth while the rest earn comparatively little. What has America become? Is it a land of opportunity for everyone, or is it still a place of institutionalized racism where only white people are granted real power and privilege?
The Ideological Roots of Institutionalized Racism
Institutionalized racism has existed in the U.S. for centuries. It began in colonial America with the introduction of enslaved Black Africans. White settlers needed a means of keeping enslaved people under their control and of alleviating some of the moral weight of owning other human beings. They ultimately turned to written texts and supporting literature promoting the notion that Black people were inferior to white people. One such example was Hume's essay "Of National Characteristics," in which he argued for the inferiority of Black people to whites — going so far as to claim that inferiority was evidenced by a lack of sciences or arts.
The opinions expressed in Hume's essay became prescriptive and were adapted by other writers, including Kant. "Kant had extrapolated Hume's comments into an affirmation of a fundamental difference of 'mental capacities' between the black and white races, squarely correlating 'blackness' and 'stupidity'" (Habib 755). Having literature treated as fact — literature asserting that Black people were by nature inferior to whites — led to the prevalence and expansion of institutionalized racism. The government did not recognize human rights for Black people. White colonists did not regard Black people as fully human; some considered them property. This mentality persisted all the way through the Civil Rights Movement of the late 1960s, during which the country remained segregated and Black Americans could barely exercise the right to vote.
White Privilege and the Norms of White Culture
Fortunately, the country has evolved past many of these social injustices, and Black Americans are now treated as equals under the law. However, because the remnants of institutionalized racism persist, white privilege remains an issue that people of color must contend with. Whites in America are still widely regarded as the default holders of power and status, an image shaped by centuries of racial hierarchy. That image is embedded in what scholars call "white culture." As Gulati-Partee and Potapchuk explain: "By 'white culture' we mean the dominant unquestioned standards of behavior and ways of functioning embodied by the vast majority of institutions in the United States. But it operates in even more subtle ways, by actually defining what 'normal' is — and likewise" (27). In practice, this means that what is regarded as professional is largely defined by white cultural norms. For example, straight, neat hair and a business suit are considered professional, while a hijab or dreadlocks may not be — because they fall outside the standard of "normal" white culture.
Conclusion: Progress and Persistent Inequality
The United States has a great deal left to address when it comes to inequality. It has made significant progress over the last century, extending rights to women, people of color, and immigrants. However, the growing class divide poses a serious threat to the nation's future. Inequality is a recipe for instability and could lead the United States into another period of upheaval if left unaddressed.
Works Cited
Aghai, Vahab. America's Shrinking Middle Class. Authorhouse, 2014.
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Between the World and Me. 2015.
Gulati-Partee, Gita, and Maggie Potapchuk. "Paying Attention to White Culture and Privilege: A Missing Link to Advancing Racial Equity." The Foundation Review, vol. 6, no. 1, 2014.
Habib, Rafey. A History of Literary Criticism and Theory: From Plato to the Present. Blackwell Pub, 2008.
Jung, John. Chinese Laundries: Tickets to Survival on Gold Mountain. Yin & Yang P, 2007.
Potapchuk, Maggie. "Chapter 6: What is White Privilege?" Flipping the Script: White Privilege and Community Building, 15 Nov. 2005, pp. 53–70, www.racialequitytools.org/resourcefiles/potapchuk1.pdf. Accessed 18 Dec. 2016.
Staurowsky, E. J. "'You Know, We Are All Indian': Exploring White Power and Privilege in Reactions to the NCAA Native American Mascot Policy." Journal of Sport & Social Issues, vol. 31, no. 1, 2007, pp. 61–76.
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