This paper examines attitudes toward masturbation and sexuality in medieval Europe, with particular focus on the role of the Catholic Church in shaping moral norms. Beginning with a brief survey of pre-Christian attitudes toward sexuality, the paper traces how Church doctrine—especially under Pope Gregory IX and theologians such as Thomas Aquinas—categorized masturbation as an unnatural sin worse than fornication. It analyzes the penitential code system, scriptural justifications drawn from Genesis, and competing theological perspectives. The paper concludes by noting how these repressive medieval attitudes formed the foundation of modern European sexual morality.
The history of human masturbation extends back into prehistory, as evidenced by prehistoric petroglyphs and rock paintings found throughout the world. "A clay figurine of the 4th millennium Before Current Era [i.e., B.C.], from a temple site called Hagar Qim on the island of Malta, depicts a woman masturbating. However, in the ancient world, depictions of male masturbation are far more common" (McFarland B.). For example, from the Sumerians—inventors of the first written Western language—we find references "to the Mesopotamian god Enki masturbating, his ejaculation filling the Tigris River with flowing water" (McFarland B.).
Until the Middle Ages, sexual activity was generally seen as natural and a normal part of healthy human development. It was the rise of Christian institutional power that would fundamentally reshape Western attitudes toward sexuality, including masturbation.
The attitudes toward sex and masturbation during medieval times were largely determined by the Catholic Church, particularly under Pope Gregory IX in the thirteenth century. The Church was the primary arbiter of culture, norms, and values during this period. The general view of sex was that it was a "necessary evil" existing for the sole purpose of reproduction. Simply put, the dominant religious attitude was that sex had been introduced to humanity "by the devil" and that "sexual feelings and urges were not fully under the control of the human will" (Blacksmith E.).
This doctrinal stance shaped every aspect of how medieval Europeans were expected to think about, discuss, and regulate their bodies and desires. Even married couples were encouraged to avoid sexual contact as much as possible. This aversion to pleasure associated with sex is illustrated by the invention of the chemise cagoule, a "sort of heavy nightshirt, with a suitably placed hole, through which a husband could impregnate his wife while avoiding any other contact" (Taylor G.).
The medieval view of sex was, however, far more complex than a single doctrinal position suggests. Three distinct approaches to sexual issues coexisted during the period. The first centered on the reproductive function of sex and "established nature and the natural as the criterion of what was licit" (Brundage J., 1987). A second approach viewed sexual activity and thoughts as essentially impure and "a source of shame and defilement" (Brundage J., 1987). The third view was comparatively less conservative and emphasized sexual relations as an expression of love and conjugal affection.
A more accurate portrayal of the medieval attitude toward sex, therefore, is a mixture of all three positions. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church, as the dominant social and cultural force, imposed its view that sexuality was an "impure" element to be avoided, and this became the enforced, accepted standard across society.
"Church penitential books and penalties for masturbation"
"Aquinas classifying masturbation as unnatural sin"
"Church misreading of Onan passage in Genesis"
"Medieval roots of modern European sexual morality"
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