Theories of Motivation Behind Drug Use and Addiction

Introduction

Motivation is one of the most complex aspects of our psychological makeup. The reasons why we do certain things, and the causative factors that influence human behavior and actions, are often seemingly mysterious and even irrational. Various theories of motivation can be applied to views of addictive behavior, and especially to harmful and potentially deadly addictions such as certain forms of drug abuse.

Drug addiction and abuse has a long and complex history in human society with regard to individual and social developments and actions. Drugs and their effects on the mind and on states of consciousness can be traced back to the origins of human history. For example, Changeux (1998) states that:

"The pollen of eight medicinal plants was discovered deposited intentionally in a 60,000-year-old tomb in Iraq. The shelves of the Assurbanipal library held tablets in cuneiform writing that listed some 250 plants, 120 mineral substances, and 180 animal substances. Opium poppies and cannabis were mentioned together with Mandragora, Ricinus, Elleborus, incense gum, and myrrh." (Changeux, 1998)

In the Western world, the recreational use of drugs first became popular in the sixteenth century, when European explorers brought back many exotic drugs and plants from their travels (Changeux, 1998). Early theorists and writers on the subject of drugs and drug usage in society linked this usage and abuse to various social factors. Émile Zola, for example, "linked the compulsive use of alcohol with poverty and social distress" (Changeux, 1998).

With the increasing popularity of drug usage in the West, laws were implemented to reduce the perceived negative effects of drug abuse. For example, opium was banned during the period of the First World War (Changeux, 1998). However:

"Despite strongly repressive laws throughout the world … about four hundred thousand individuals are currently incarcerated in the United States for violation of drug laws … drug abuse remains an alarming health hazard throughout the world. Illicit drugs account for 35% of new cases of AIDS in the United States. Heroin-related deaths rose in U.S. metropolitan areas from thirteen hundred in 1985 to thirty-five hundred in 1994." (Changeux, 1998)

The term "addiction" is a contentious one and is often used only to refer to an extreme or psychopathological state in which control over drug use is lost (Changeux, 1998). It is more commonly used to describe a state of dependence on an external substance or pattern of behavior. In this sense, addiction can have physical and psychological or behavioral dimensions, or a combination of these aspects.

Theories of addiction and the motivational and causative factors that underlie these often-deadly conditions are important because they provide the knowledge and foundations for rehabilitation and preventative measures that can reduce the incidence and severity of addictive behavior and drug abuse. The following discussion will therefore focus on some of the primary and most commonly researched motivational theories of addiction.

Overview of Motivational Theories and Addiction

Drug addiction and substance abuse are generally defined as the "compulsive use of a substance despite negative consequences which can be severe … drug abuse is simply excessive use of a drug or use of a drug for purposes for which it was not medically intended" (Drug Abuse and Dependence). The contemporary abuse of these substances is exacerbated by factors such as new and easier modes of communication and the way in which drugs are often portrayed in the media and in entertainment.

Not all drugs are equally addictive. A drug such as heroin or cocaine is more addictive and requires shorter periods of use than codeine or alcohol before dependence sets in. There are two central forms of addiction: physical and psychological dependence. However, these two aspects are not mutually exclusive, and both can play a part in the process of addiction.

In more theoretical terms, drug addiction refers to a situation where "drug procurement and administration appear to govern the organism's behavior, and where the drug seems to dominate the organism's motivational hierarchy" (Bozarth, 1990). Jaffe (1975) goes further and describes addiction as "a behavioral pattern of compulsive drug use, characterized by overwhelming involvement with the use of a drug, the securing of its supply, and a high tendency to relapse after withdrawal" (p. 285).

There is a general consensus that the motivation for addictive behavior can be more appropriately defined in psychological and behavioral terms rather than purely physical ones:

"The nature of drug addiction places its study firmly in the realm of motivational psychology. Many of the experimental methods that have been developed to study conventional rewards (e.g., food, water, sex) can be applied to the study of addiction, and the conceptual advances made in motivational theory can be used to guide the study of addictive behavior." (Bozarth, 1990)

In other words, psychological theories of drug addiction are seen by many theorists to be more significant and instructive than explanations that rely solely on chemical or neurological causes — although these too play an important role in the addictive syndrome. An understanding of the psychological motivation underlying addictive behavior is therefore essential for constructing appropriate remedies and preventative strategies.

Studies also stress the importance of motivational strength in the understanding of addicts and addiction. The very nature of addiction suggests that the motivational forces underlying these behaviors must be extremely strong, especially when maintaining them often runs counter to social approval and the individual's own common-sense health concerns. Theories that address this motivation range from neurobiological and neuropsychological to social, cognitive, and developmental perspectives.

Sensation and Experience Seeking

Possibly one of the most extensively researched theories about motivation and addiction is the view that it is driven by hedonism and pleasure seeking. Robert E. Franken, in his book Human Motivation (2001), states that "sensation seekers satisfy their needs in many ways" (p. 345) and adds that these individuals are often motivated to experiment with drugs and banned substances as a source of new experiences.

This view of sensation and experience seeking as a cardinal motivating factor can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who held that "human beings are pulled forward toward and by nature seek pleasure, whereas they flee from and reject pain" (Changeux, 1998). Although relatively simple as a thesis, this idea forms the basis for many contemporary psychological theories of motivation and addiction. It rests on the notion that there are "pleasure centers" in the brain and that the motivation for human actions is based on the search for stimulation of those centers.

The urge to explore new sensations and experiences, coupled with the pleasure motive in drug taking, is a fundamental starting point in understanding the motivational matrix behind drug addiction and abuse, as well as other addictions. This also relates to the theory of the human "curiosity drive" and the search for novelty (Franken, 2002, p. 335), which in turn connects to another related theoretical perspective: self-determination theory.

Zuckerman's view of self-determination theory can be linked to various developmental theories of motivation. Self-determination theory holds that human beings have three innate needs that underlie motivational impulses: competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Franken, 2001, p. 341). Importantly, two of these needs — competence and autonomy — "form the basis for understanding intrinsic motivation" (Franken, 2001, p. 341). Essentially, the theory proposes that "humans are innately inclined to respond to novelty and challenge" (Franken, 2001, p. 341). People therefore tend to respond to challenges and are motivated to achieve a sense of competency and autonomy, and these fundamental motivational drives also play a role in the causes of drug usage and addiction.

Related to the above is the theory of disinhibition, which leans toward the socio-psychological aspect of motivation and addiction and forms an important part of developmental theories of addiction. It is also possibly one of the most significant motivational factors among young people. Zuckerman refers to disinhibition as follows: "Those who choose to follow a conventional lifestyle might periodically escape by engaging in social drinking…" (Franken, 2001, p. 343). The desire or need for disinhibition may lead to addictive patterns of behavior in which drugs or alcohol supply the required escape from routine and inhibitory factors.

Disinhibition is also strongly related to the conventions of society, where the individual may feel confined by the routines and patterns of ordinary life. This can lead to addictive behavior, as the use of drugs or substances is motivated by the desire to free oneself and fulfill experiential needs.

The central concept linking all of these motivational theories is that each contributes to an understanding of the addictive process. This process typically follows a common sequence involving a gradual loss of control:

"The recreational and pleasurable use of drugs, associated at least in some cases with euphoria and/or vivid hallucinations … However, progressively the user loses control over drug intake; he becomes a drug abuser and, finally, drug-dependent. He then needs the drug to function within normal limits. He seeks higher doses of the drug to achieve the same effect — that is, a degree of tolerance develops." (Changeux, 1998)

Conclusion

There are many other motivation theories that can be used to explain and understand addictive behavior. The incentive motivation model, for instance, emphasizes drive-reduction, which states that humans are motivated by certain drives toward a specific goal and that the primary motivational incentive is to reduce the drive. Neurophysiological and neuropsychological theories should also be considered as part of the literature on this subject. Widiger and Sankis (2000) suggest that current research indicates that "any excessively maladaptive motivation, interest, desire, or craving for a drug is fundamentally a neurophysiological pathology" (p. 377).

Motivational theories are extremely important in developing strategies to deal with addictions. Understanding pleasure seeking and drug taking, and the way that withdrawal tends to build a syndrome of behavior that leads to addiction, is also an important facet of this area of study. In the final analysis, the various theories of motivation are important points of departure in the alleviation and reduction of the negative outcomes of addictive behavior in society.

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