This paper explores the theoretical framework of oppression as outlined by Hays and Erford, examining two primary modalities—oppression by force and oppression by deprivation—and three distinct types: primary, secondary, and tertiary (internalized) oppression. The paper establishes the interconnected relationships between oppression, power, and privilege, demonstrating how power imbalances create conditions for systemic disadvantage. Through discussion of white privilege as an invisible but pervasive phenomenon, the paper illustrates how privilege operates within social hierarchies and how members of both dominant and subordinate groups may perpetuate oppressive systems, whether actively or through complicity and internalized acceptance.
According to Hays & Erford (2014), oppression can be described as an intersection of two modalities: oppression by force and oppression by deprivation. The first modality can be described as oppression by force, coercion, or duress. It is the act of imposing on another or others an object, label, role, experience, or set of living conditions that is unwanted, needlessly painful, and detracts from physical or psychological well-being.
In the second mode, oppression by deprivation is the act that deprives another or others of an object, role, experience, or set of living conditions that are desirable and conducive to physical or psychological well-being. It also includes the deprivation of loved ones, respect, or dignity (Hays & Erford, 2014). These two modalities form the foundation for understanding how oppression operates within systems and relationships.
The three types of oppression are primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary oppression is of the blatant variety directly perpetrated through either or both of the modalities of force or deprivation. This form of oppression is deliberate and visible to observers and targets alike.
Secondary oppression occurs when a person does not actively oppress through force or deprivation but benefits from oppression of others by others. A secondary oppressor does not object to others carrying it out and thus gives it tacit approval. Secondary oppressors generally do not consider themselves to be oppressors, usually asserting quite the contrary (Hays & Erford, 2014). This passive complicity allows oppressive systems to persist without requiring active participation from all members of the dominant group.
Lastly, tertiary oppression (also known as internalized oppression) occurs when a member seeks acceptance from the dominant group by "selling out" or abandoning his or her own group. Or it can take place when persons so desire and aspire to the values and status of the oppressive group that they indirectly victimize members of their own group. The tertiary oppressor often defends the actions or values of the dominant group at the expense of the subordinate group (Hays & Erford, 2014).
Oppression, power, and privilege are all related and go hand in hand to one another. Power is defined primarily in the context of control, as influence or the outright exertion of force. Power can be either helpful or harmful, depending on how it is used. Power or control is a primary need of human beings; survival is impossible without at least some measure of it.
The problem arises, of course, when those intended effects are harmful to the survival of others. The point is that power used with harmful intent without empathy or compassion is oppression. As Hays and Erford (2014) note, "The result of oppression is an imbalance of power (having control, choice, autonomy, and authority or influence over others), with one group having more power, access and advantage than another group" (oppressed vs. privileged) (p. 60).
As far as privilege, it is defined as having power, access, advantage, and a majority status. Status and power gives "privileged" persons the social sanction to feel "better than" or superior to, and more entitled than those lower on the social scale, regardless of their worthiness. This hierarchical arrangement becomes the foundation for continued systemic oppression.
"White privilege as invisible benefit and entitlement"
Because privilege has operated for so long in social systems, it has become normalized and invisible to those who possess it. Many people do not want to be called racist or feel afraid to discuss racial issues, yet in contemporary society these dynamics play out every day. Understanding racism and its manifestations requires recognizing that white privilege is "the other side of the coin" that typically receives little attention in the discussion of racism. White privilege entitles whites the choice to acknowledge and discuss race and racism when they choose to do so (Hays & Erford, 2014, p. 93).
Historical practices and customs, even those that seem innocuous on the surface, often carry embedded inequities that have become accepted over time. The internalization of privilege occurs when members of dominant groups fail to recognize their advantages or when they defend systems that benefit them at the expense of subordinate groups.
The frameworks provided by the American Psychological Association on multicultural competence emphasize that oppression, power, and privilege operate as an integrated system within counseling and broader social contexts. Recognizing that oppression takes multiple forms—from overt force to subtle deprivation, from direct action to tacit approval to internalized acceptance—is essential for developing the awareness necessary to address systemic inequities. This understanding is foundational to building culturally competent counseling practice and fostering social justice in both professional and personal contexts.
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