Erikson, Adler, and Horney: Psychosocial Development Theories

Introduction: Freud and the Origins of Psychosocial Theory

In the history of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud was the first to delve into the unknown recesses of the human mind to identify reasons for neuroses. He identified infantile sexuality as lying at the heart of most problems in the relationship with the self and others, and used the three-dimensional model of the id, the ego, and the superego to describe the various ways in which these neuroses manifested themselves. Today, many theorists use Freud's ideas to build their own derivative theories. Even though many reject some or most of the early philosopher's positions, it is thanks to him that these theories have a reason for existence in themselves.

The theory known as psychosocial development bases many of its concepts on the early ideas conceptualized by Freud. Theorists such as Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney have each developed their own understanding of what it means to develop as a human being from childhood to adulthood. Their major departure from Freud's theory rests on the recognition that the social environment plays a significant role in human development.

Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Like Freud, Erikson's theory is based upon the belief that childhood plays a vital role in the development of personality (Davis and Clifton, n.d.). While accepting Freud's ideas on the id, ego, and superego, as well as the concept of infantile sexuality, Erikson's theory incorporates two major departures from the earlier philosopher. Erikson argues that personality cannot be described solely on the basis of sexuality, and that personality continues to develop well after the individual has reached five years of age.

The stages of Erikson's personality development theory unfold according to an individual's upbringing and culture, along with the innate traits with which a person is born. The stages are as follows:

Stage 1 involves the development of basic trust versus mistrust. This is largely shaped by the maternal relationship, since the relationship with the mother is the first that a child develops. Stage 2 is the development of autonomy versus shame and doubt, which focuses on the increasingly complex familial and social relationships a child develops with others and with the self. Stage 3 is initiative versus guilt, in which autonomy develops further into initiative. Depending on the balance between initiative and guilt, Stage 4 focuses on industry versus inferiority — this is where the individual either distinguishes him- or herself as a fully conscious, free-thinking person or becomes a conformist who can be manipulated by others.

Stage 5 addresses the development of identity versus role confusion, while Stage 6 focuses on intimacy versus isolation. The generativity in Stage 7 develops from healthy intimate and professional relationships, while stagnation is its opposite. Erikson emphasizes that a desire to establish and guide the next generation, as well as engagement in socially valued work, are both forms of generativity. The final Stage 8 focuses on ego integrity versus despair. Ego integrity at this stage functions as an effective antidote to the fear of death, the absence of which culminates in despair.

Adler's Holistic and Social Approach

Even more than Erikson, Alfred Adler recognized the need to understand the individual according to his or her social context. Adler's theory regards the human person as a holistic entity that should be studied as such, in accordance with the basic human goal to "belong and feel significant" (Adler Graduate School, 2014). To explain this, Adler held that thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior should be understood as subordinate to the individual's lifestyle and external social influences.

Because the human being is seen as a whole, the social context is regarded as the greater whole to which the individual belongs. This is the basis for dealing with neuroses. When a person is truly connected with the self and with others, mental health follows. When that connection is broken, mental health is compromised. In psychotherapy, therefore, the individual is encouraged to reestablish his or her social and familial connections, as well as the connection with the self and one's own goals.

Conclusion

The works of Erikson, Adler, and Horney collectively demonstrate that human personality development cannot be understood in isolation from the social environment. Each theorist, while building on Freud's foundational insights, moved beyond infantile sexuality to foreground the relational and cultural dimensions of psychological growth. Empirical research continues to validate key aspects of their frameworks, affirming the lasting relevance of psychosocial theory in understanding human development.