Psychosocial and Developmental Assessment of Midlife

Erikson's and Levinson's Theories of Midlife Development

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which originated in 1950, centered on the notion that there are eight universal ego stages through which all human beings evolve. These are: (1) Infancy (birth–2 years), in which Trust vs. Mistrust is the key conflict and the ability to develop confidence while being dependent is the primary challenge; (2) Toddler (2–3 years), in which Autonomy vs. Shame is the central conflict and the predominant challenge is learning to adjust to social rules; (3) Early Childhood (3–6 years), in which Initiative vs. Guilt represents the prime conflict and learning social limitations on behavior is the main challenge; (4) School Age (6–11 years), in which Industry vs. Inferiority is the subject of conflict and mastering culturally relevant skills is the ultimate challenge. Adolescence, according to Erikson, culminates in the triumph of Identity over Role Confusion. The last three stages — the adult stages — involve conflicts relating to Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair, with challenges that encompass the establishment of love and intimacy in relationships (Erikson, 1950). The Generativity vs. Stagnation stage is most closely associated with midlife and is the primary focus of this paper.

Many developmental theorists of the past painted a rather bleak picture of midlife. Theorists such as Erikson (1950) and Levinson (1978) essentially described middle age as "the beginning of the end." This was partly because, until relatively recently, middle age was not technically considered to be the middle of life. Most people still considered middle age to begin around 40–45 even when few people lived past seventy. Today, however, it is a much more literal term. Now that people live longer, 40 to 45 is much closer to being the actual midpoint of the life span.

Erikson's developmental stage theories perceive middle age as a time to reflect on the past rather than a time to continue planning for the future. They seem to assume that once an individual reaches middle age, there is nothing major left to accomplish — that one is merely winding down toward the end of life and passing accumulated wisdom on to the next generation. Levinson's developmental stage theories similarly perceive middle age as a time of emotional instability and insecurity. He asserts that adults around the ages of 40 to 45 tend to experience what is popularly known as a "midlife crisis," in which they desperately attempt to recapture their youth because they cannot face the fact that the end of life is drawing nearer.

Changing Perceptions of Middle Age

Because of increased longevity, there have also been significant changes in how people view midlife. No longer is it seen by most people as a time to prepare for retirement and ease into old age; many now consider it to be the prime of life. Many people in their 40s and 50s today are just as active and energetic as people in their 20s. In addition, they have far more to keep them engaged than in the past — especially women — so when their children leave home they do not necessarily sink into depression. Instead, many take advantage of the freedom that an empty nest offers (Gould, 1998).

In recent years, midlife has often been depicted as "the good years" — a time for relaxing and enjoying leisure after the children are grown. Advertisements for exotic vacations or second homes show active, vigorous, and affluent couples in their middle years with the time and resources to pursue their interests. Midlife women and men are frequently shown beginning new careers or pursuing new hobbies, often because their financial stability allows them to take risks (Gould, 1998). Certainly not all people at midlife are financially positioned to pursue such activities, but the shift is not solely about money. It is about changing attitudes, a longer lifespan, and a new array of opportunities — especially for women.

Interview Portrait: A Woman at Midlife

An interview with a 46-year-old woman — referred to here as the interview subject — illustrates that midlife need no longer be considered the "beginning of the end." She is at the height of her career as a physical therapist, is in excellent physical condition, and is active in tennis and other sports. She also exercises her mind regularly when she and her husband attend a live trivia game each week. Of her three sons, only one still lives at home while attending college; one is in the Army and currently deployed overseas; and the other is living with his partner in another city.

The interview subject met her husband early, when they were both in college. She graduated with a degree in physical therapy, and her husband graduated a year later with a degree in computer programming. She was planning her life with her partner and looking forward to her career, but she also wanted to raise a family. This was a time when women were already relatively common fixtures in the workplace; however, there was still social pressure — as there is today — on women to be the ones to stay home and raise children. When asked whether she had been afraid she would not be able to juggle both career and family, she answered that she had been scared, but that she knew many other women who had done it successfully and that she knew she could count on her husband to help.

At midlife, the interview subject is aware of how influential her husband has been in shaping her life, yet she remains a strong and independent woman who makes her own decisions. She continues to work as a physical therapist and also volunteers for environmental groups. She has an active physical and social life and does not view herself the way women of the 1940s and 1950s viewed themselves at her age. Although she knows that becoming a grandmother may be around the corner, she said she cannot even imagine herself being old enough to hold that role. She noted that the whole idea "freaks her out" because she still feels as though she is in her twenties. In the past, most women approaching fifty regarded grandmotherhood as the next natural step; today, women are having children later and focusing more intensively on their careers.

The interview subject has a very strong sense of self and a healthy social life that complements her successful family and professional life. She noted that her friends are very supportive. She has a close-knit group of female friends, most of whom are close to her age. Some are married, some are divorced, and they come from a variety of ethnic backgrounds; what they share is genuine enjoyment of each other's company and a sense that they feel and act much younger than they once assumed a person was supposed to feel at their age.

Conclusion

The interview subject serves as a compelling example of how conceptions of midlife are changing not only by attitude but also by circumstance. Whereas earlier developmental theories depicted midlife as the "beginning of the end," this is no longer the case for most modern Americans. Increased life expectancy, shifting gender roles, evolving family structures, and new economic realities have collectively transformed middle age into a period of continued growth, productivity, and opportunity. As the American Psychological Association and a growing body of developmental research confirm, the old theoretical models must be updated to reflect the realities of twenty-first-century midlife. The experiences of individuals like the interview subject demonstrate that midlife, far from being a decline, can represent some of the most fulfilling years of a person's life.