This paper traces the development of religion in Tokyo from its indigenous roots through the early nineteenth century, with particular emphasis on the Tokugawa period (1603–1867). It examines the origins of Shinto, Buddhism, and Christianity in Japan, exploring how each religion evolved and interacted with the others. The paper pays special attention to how the Tokugawa regime deliberately shaped and unified religious practice to reinforce social hierarchy, promote harmony, and resist Western influence. It also explains why Shinto and Buddhism were able to coexist peacefully while Christianity posed a fundamental challenge to Japan's indigenous religious traditions.
Religion plays an important part in the lives of everyone. It is especially important at the various stages of life such as births, weddings, and funerals, and it also plays an important role in the daily lives of many people. In Tokyo today, there are four major religions: Shinto, Buddhism, Christianity, and a group comprised of various new religions. Confucianism was another major religion at one time, but it had primarily died out by the Tokugawa period. Of these, Shinto is the religion most closely associated with the indigenous peoples of Japan; the others were introduced later. Among these traditions there are many cross-influences, and it is at times difficult to distinguish the roots of the newer versions of religion practiced in Tokyo.
According to one university source, Shinto and Buddhism are by far the most popular, both in number of participants and in number of shrines and temples, and the two are nearly equal in terms of membership. This paper traces the development of religion in Tokyo from its indigenous roots, focusing on the use of religion during the Tokugawa period to establish and strengthen a new Japanese state.
Shinto arose during the Yayoi period, from approximately 300 BC to 300 AD. During this time, people began to recognize certain forces in nature — known as kami — which had an effect on their world, and clans began to form small political units. During the Kofun period (300–645 AD), clan leaders who claimed descent from the goddess Amaterasu Omikami founded the Imperial dynasty, which continues to the present day. The ruler Shotoku Taishi (574–622) sought to centralize government and promote adherence to the principles of Buddhism and Confucianism.
Between 710 and 794, the Imperial Court moved to Nara. At this time all emperors practiced Shinto; however, they also promoted Buddhism, believing it would foster peace and protect the state. Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of the state, and Buddhist leaders gained significant political power. During the Heian period (794–1185), Shinto and Buddhism flourished side by side. From that point until 1568, the country passed through a prolonged period of political strife and turmoil.
Shinto had its roots in the indigenous cultures of ancient Japan. It was a conglomeration of nature worship, tribal culture, hero worship, and respect for the emperor. A Shinto shrine is the home of the garden deity who guards the village. The origins of Shinto are grounded in the belief that the emperor is of divine origin. This belief was reinforced in 1868 when the Meiji Government restored the emperor to power and established the Department of Shrine Affairs, making Shinto the state religion. There were some who did not wish to see their religion nationalized, and they became known as Sect Shinto. Through various splits and disagreements, the number of small sects grew to over one hundred, many of which exist today.
Buddhism came to Japan through China and Korea in 538 AD, having originated in India. It gained popularity due to the patronage of Prince Shotoku, who served as regent from 593 to 628. The Horyuji Temple was built under his rule and soon became a center of learning. A statue of Buddha at Nara was constructed to symbolize the power of the imperial government.
The ninth century heralded the arrival of Tendai and Shingon Buddhism. During this time, the fine arts thrived alongside the growing influence of the aristocracy. From this period through the Tokugawa period (1603–1867), Buddhism underwent many philosophical changes, including a greater emphasis on personal experience rather than scholarly learning. It was during this time that Buddhism reached common people — farmers, the military, and other ordinary citizens — and was no longer confined to the realm of the aristocracy.
Christianity was introduced to Japan in 1549 by a Jesuit missionary named St. Francis Xavier. It arrived at a time of internal strife and gained popularity among those seeking new spiritual symbols and those who wished to access the advanced technology offered by the West. By the end of the sixteenth century, leaders grew fearful that the new religion was an attempt to gain control over the population and decided to ban it. In the middle of the nineteenth century, pressure to tolerate religious freedom led leaders to lift the ban. The first Christian churches established after the ban was lifted were Catholic and Protestant. These two sects worked closely together and formed many missionary churches, several of which later became self-supporting.
In 1600, Japan entered a period known as the Edo, or Tokugawa period. During this time, Tokugawa Ieyasu founded a new shogunate and instituted sweeping reforms. Japan entered into a period of isolation, and with that isolation came peace. The capital was established in Tokyo, a rigid social hierarchy was put in place, and the arts and technology flourished. Japan remained largely closed to outsiders from roughly 1600 to 1868.
During the Edo period, major shrines were established in Tokyo, most notably Meiji Jingu and Yasukuni Jinja. Shinto during this era can be grouped into five main categories based on: traditional Shinto, Confucianism, faith healing, mountain worship, and purification rites. As scholar Paul Watt observed, "the Japanese religious tradition is rich and complex, encompassing within it both complementary and contradictory trends in religious thought and practice with an ease that may occasionally puzzle the Western observer" (Watt, 1996).
Proponents of Buddhism recognized many benefits of the religion, including the promotion of trade with other Asian nations. Those who wished to further Japan's relations with neighboring countries actively sought to develop a connection between Shinto and Buddhism. They achieved this by identifying the Shinto kami as manifestations of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas that had developed within the Mahayana Buddhist tradition (Watt, 1996).
The Tokugawa regime supported any ideas thought to increase harmony and decrease violence. Tokugawa therefore hired scholars to bring together elements of various older religions that served his political purposes. Ogyu Sorai and Hayashi Razan of the neo-Confucian Chu Hsi school of thought were the principal scholars charged with this task. Under the resulting framework, social and natural order were held to be in agreement with the unchanging principles of nature and reverence for the ruler. This ideology displaced the ideas of the Warring States period, in which one's lineage could override moral obligations (Nelson, 2002).
Tokugawa promoted peace and harmony, yet temple records show that the temple at Arakawa was used to execute approximately 200,000 people for behavior deemed too individualistic in nature. Tokugawa's religious framework allowed the individual no freedom of choice. Everyone was judged according to his or her place in the social hierarchy, and this new "religion" depended on strict adherence to social norms (Nelson, 2002).
Part of this strict religious adherence was influenced by the introduction of Christianity and Western ideas. Japan's leaders wanted the same kind of spiritual unity for Japan that they observed Christianity providing for Western nations. This was viewed as a necessity, as Western and other foreign nations sought to expand their control into the region (Nelson, 2002). Japan needed to unite in order to resist these attempts at outside control, and leaders turned to a new state religion to accomplish this goal. Under great external pressure, leaders saw the need to establish universal principles that would turn the people's focus from the problems of the state toward something greater. It was hoped that belief in something transcendent would help unify Japan at one of the most critical moments in its history.
The transition from the Tokugawa period to the Meiji period brought an increased urgency to develop a state religion in response to mounting pressure from the Christian West. Several options were examined: Christianity was proposed and then rejected for failing to promote peace and harmony; attempts were made to enlist a pure Buddhist doctrine for the purposes of the state; and ultimately, an overhauled version of Shinto was adopted as official policy, to the detriment of Buddhism and with the total ban of Christianity (Nelson, 2002).
The acceptance of a state religion did not happen overnight. It took nearly twenty years of persistent effort to secure the adoption of a state religion, but by 1889 it was a reality. This was due in part to the restructuring of the educational system around the new religion, as well as the appointment of Shinto priests as government employees. Any group or individual opposing this new set of ideals was considered disloyal and subject to severe punishment (Nelson, 2002).
"Philosophical compatibility and conflict between faiths"
Throughout the history of Japan, religion has been used to unite the people and bring harmony and peace to Japanese society. While Eastern religions have been able to coexist largely due to similarities in philosophy, Western religion has historically produced conflict. The religions practiced in Tokyo today are the result of the blending of many ideas across centuries. Religion has played an essential role in shaping the Japanese state, and it will undoubtedly continue to play an important role in the lives of many — both as individuals and as a nation — for years to come.
You’re 74% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 1 section.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.