Research Methods: Key Concepts and Definitions

Study Design and Variables

Recordkeeping is fundamental to good science because it supports integrity and accountability in research studies. Records must be understandable to others and contain sufficient detail that another skilled researcher can repeat the same work and obtain the same results. Research integrity standards emphasize that high-quality documentation is essential for replicability.

Antecedent Variable in statistics and social science research is a variable that helps explain the relationship between other variables that have some degree of cause-and-effect relationship. In regression analysis, an antecedent variable provides influence on both the dependent and independent variables.

Causal vs. Spurious Relationships differ fundamentally. A spurious relationship occurs when variable X causes both Y and Z, creating an apparent relationship between Y and Z that is not direct. A causal relationship, by contrast, occurs when the first event directly results in the second event's occurrence.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis include the ability to be tested using the scientific method. A hypothesis proposes an explanation for a phenomenon and must be formulated in a way that allows for empirical testing.

Characteristics of a Good Research Question include asking for information that can be answered within the scope of the research methodology. The question should be specific, measurable, and achievable given available resources.

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge consist of knowledge formulated through testable explanations. Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and subject to verification or refutation.

Characteristics of Small-N Designs include testing only one or very few subjects who are treated as individuals rather than assigned to groups. Data collection extends over long periods to enable stabilization of performance over time. Data from subjects are handled separately, analyzed visually, and subjected to minimal inferential statistical analysis.

Control Group in a scientific study is the group that receives no treatment, whereas the experimental group does receive treatment. The control group eliminates alternate explanations that might arise from the experiment's results.

Correlation vs. Causality represent distinct concepts. Correlation measures the relationship between two variables or data values, while causality refers to the relationship where an effect arises from the physical consequence of a cause.

Deduction and Induction are opposing reasoning approaches. Deduction is an approach based on what is observed naturally, while induction moves from specifics to generalization.

Dependent Variable (also called the response variable) is the outcome variable that researchers measure to assess the effect of their manipulation or treatment.

Determinants of Causality are variables that either increase or bring about a decrease in risk.

Directional Hypothesis is more specific than a non-directional hypothesis because the researcher not only predicts the existence of a relationship but also specifies the direction that relationship will take.

Ecological Fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when statistical data regarding groups is interpreted to make inferences about the nature of individuals within those groups.

Ecological Inference is the process of using ecological data to make conclusions about behavior at the individual level.

Empirical refers to science-based knowledge or research grounded in observation and measurement.

Empirical Generalization involves making a statement about regularities that are observed, without attempting to provide an explanation for those patterns.

Independent Variable is the variable that the researcher varies or manipulates during the study.

Unit of Analysis is that which undergoes analysis in a study, whether individuals, groups, social interactions, or organizations.