Robert Adam: Neoclassical Design and Architecture in 18th-Century England

Introduction: Robert Adam and the Classical Revival

Robert Adam is considered Scotland's most famous architect. He was, however, better known as the most popular designer in London and throughout England, sought after for the sophisticated and pleasant atmospheres that the rooms he decorated conveyed. He was a leader of classical revival style in both architecture and interior decoration during the last half of the eighteenth century, and his designs dominated the tastes of the wealthiest and most noble clientele. He was known for his use of lavish color, light, detailed ornamentation, and above all, the coordination of every element of a room into a unified decorative whole. A skilled businessman and a genius at design innovation, his work had its origins in classical antiquity — the Italian, French, and Renaissance buildings he visited as a young man — but he combined those influences with Greek, Baroque, Byzantine, and other traditions to create original and custom combinations for each home he decorated.

Perhaps Adam's most unusual designs were based on Etruscan vase decorations. The Etruscan Dressing Room at Osterley Park, Middlesex, is the only surviving example of eight such decorative projects (Sharp, 1991, p. 11).

The materials used by designers during the eighteenth century reflected the industrial revolution in that they were able to utilize improved versions of older materials. Bricks were fired at higher temperatures and produced different colors. Stucco and ceramic tiles were also employed, with decorative or highly colored motifs that carried designs or imitated brick. Improved casting techniques allowed designers to use decorative ironwork to create delicate, Neoclassical patterns for balconies and window frames. Structural ironwork was also used in staircases and iron plates that helped fireproof structures.

Interior and Exterior Designs Preceding and During Robert Adam's Era

Palladian architecture was the leading style in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Andrea Palladio lived in Italy from 1508 to 1580, designing buildings in a classical style influenced by the principles of the Roman architect Vitruvius and his disciple Leon Battista Alberti, whose architecture was also rooted in classical Roman precedent. Classical architecture is based on mathematical proportions rather than the elaborate, ornamental style characteristic of the later Renaissance, with straight lines and massive entrances flanked by high porches and columns. Interiors are based on the interrelationship of mathematical ratios, and the rooms are spacious and well-proportioned.

After the Renaissance in Italy — itself influenced by Greek and Roman styles — interiors began to employ leading artists and architects for decoration. The Palladian style grew popular in the seventeenth century and continued to develop, dominating European design until the end of the eighteenth century. Based on Palladio's writings and the designs he produced in the sixteenth century, the architecture popular during the mid-seventeenth century drew on his drawings almost exclusively. It returned to favor in the early eighteenth century as Neo-Palladianism. Just as it was falling from favor in Europe, it enjoyed a surge of popularity in the United States, inspiring the architecture of Thomas Jefferson and numerous other architects.

Palladio designed his villas with equal views from every side, if possible, with porticos on each facade to be used for enjoying the view while being sheltered from the sun. He sometimes used a loggia rather than a portico for variety or practical need. This recessed porch was essentially an internal, single-story room with pierced walls open to the elements. Sometimes the loggia would be placed on the second floor above the first-floor loggia, creating a double loggia. The front elevations resembled Roman temples, and the floor plan was laid out in a cruciform design. The villas were usually three stories tall — the basement or ground floor, the piano nobile (accessed by outside steps), and a mezzanine above. The proportions of the rooms were interrelated by ratios of 3:4 and 4:5. Country homes had long wings extending from the main block, with colonnades leading to farm buildings that housed horses, livestock, and produce.

The Palladian window (also known as the Serlian or Venetian window) was a trademark of Palladio's work. It was arched and flanked by two lower rectangular openings. This style of window was used extensively, most notably in the arcades of the Palazzo della Ragione in Vicenza. The entrances of Villa Godi and Villa Forni-Cerato also feature this style.

In England, Inigo Jones was directly responsible for importing Palladio's designs and incorporating them into the facades of the buildings he constructed. He used this design in Wilton House, the Queen's House at Greenwich, and the Banqueting House at Whitehall. Following the civil war associated with Charles I, Palladianism fell out of favor, and the Baroque designs of William Talman, John Vanbrugh, Nicholas Hawksmoor, and Jones's pupil John Webb came into vogue.

Over the following century, England notably developed the Elizabethan, Jacobean, and Georgian styles. Furniture during this period was designed by Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite, the last of whom took his inspiration — and some of his actual designs — from Robert Adam (Harwood, 2002, p. 497).

Robert Adam was the only architect who correlated interior and exterior architecture, furniture, and accessories into one unified style. His work stood in contrast to the Neo-Palladian trend. He was in fact one of the major instigators of Neoclassicism, which became fashionable during the 1760s, eclipsing the Rococo, Chinese, and Gothic Revivals. Tired of Neo-Palladianism, the British were drawn to styles from the rest of Europe and sought designers who could incorporate those trends into the British mainstream. Robert Adam became the leading Neoclassical designer, working primarily on town and country houses, though banks, churches, and other public structures also reflected his influence (Harwood, 2002, p. 481).

Adam's Visual Design Composition

Adam's designs drew their compositional inspiration from the classical buildings he had studied so thoroughly in Italy. The golden mean was applied to columns and their placement. The framing of doors, windows, and other design features — both inside and outside the homes he decorated or remodeled — was executed in motifs that echoed the character of the rest of the house. A design might outline the corners and fall to the floor with birds, leaves, or fixtures evoking a classical theme, incorporating natural and ornamental Baroque-style decorative painting.

Facades created by Robert Adam replaced the stiff, oversized fronts and heavy Neo-Palladian details of country home porches with curving staircases and gracefully arched doorframes. Balconies were accessed by tall windows that reached from the floor almost to the ceiling, creating more interior light while dramatically altering the exterior appearance of the homes. Larger panes of glass became possible through improved manufacturing techniques.

Doors were framed by columns or pilasters and pediments, with surrounds of stone or wood painted to resemble stone. Fanlights became larger and more prominent. The doors themselves commonly had six panels and were painted dark brown or green with brass or cast-iron hardware featuring classical motifs (Harwood, 2002, p. 485).

Conclusion: Legacy and Later Life

Robert Adam had been elected a member of the Royal Society of Arts in 1758, and in 1761 was elected a member of the Society of Antiquaries. When he was appointed Architect of the King's Works, he was surprised to find he had been appointed jointly with Sir William Chambers, his long-time rival. Robert's younger brother James succeeded him in the post of Architect of the King's Works and was elected a Member of Parliament for Kinross.

Robert Adam died at the age of 64 from a stomach aneurysm, leaving behind nearly 9,000 drawings, most of which were acquired by architect John Soane for the Soane Museum in London. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. He published two volumes documenting his and his brother's work — Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam — between 1773 and 1778, and his brother later had this masterwork republished in 1822.

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Harwood, B., May, B., & Sherman, C. (2002). Architecture and Interior Design through the 18th Century: An Integrated History. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Palladianism. (2006). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved November 13, 2006, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058116

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Sharp, D. (1991). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture. New York: Quarto Publishing, p. 11.