Sand Creek Massacre: Causes, Events, and Aftermath
This paper examines the Sand Creek Massacre of November 29, 1864, in which Colonel John Chivington led an unprovoked attack on Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle's encampment in Colorado Territory. It traces the root causes of the massacre—including treaty negotiations, escalating tensions between white settlers and Native Americans, and Governor John Evans's failed containment policies—and describes the brutal events of the attack, in which 148 of Black Kettle's followers, more than half of them women, children, and elderly, were killed. The paper concludes by examining the consequences for Chivington and the subsequent relocation of Black Kettle and his survivors.
- Introduction: Context of settler-Native tensions in Colorado
- Causes of the Massacre: Treaties, Evans's policies, and mounting conflict
- The Attack at Sand Creek: Chivington's assault and casualty details
- Aftermath and Consequences: Chivington's fall and Black Kettle's relocation
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What makes this paper effective
- Uses direct quotation strategically to let primary and secondary sources establish key facts without over-editorializing.
- Maintains a clear chronological structure, moving logically from background causes through the event itself to its aftermath.
- Balances military, political, and human dimensions of the event by referencing Governor Evans, Colonel Chivington, and Chief Black Kettle as distinct actors.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates effective use of attributed quotation: each claim is tied to a named source, and Chivington's own self-serving account of the battle is introduced and then immediately undermined by the historical record. This technique of presenting a contested claim and then countering it is a foundational move in historical argumentation.
Structure breakdown
The essay opens with contextual framing establishing the political climate in Colorado Territory before the massacre. It then traces specific causes—treaty history, Governor Evans's containment policy, and escalating settler-Native American conflict. The third section narrates the attack itself with casualty figures and details of the Third Colorado Cavalry's conduct. A brief concluding section covers Chivington's resignation and Black Kettle's survival and relocation. A Works Cited list closes the paper in MLA format.
Introduction
The Sand Creek Massacre is one of the most horrific and devastating atrocities ever to befall the Cheyenne and Arapaho nations. With tensions running high between Native Americans and white settlers due to an increased influx of whites into the Colorado Territory—drawn by hunting and gold prospecting opportunities—and in the aftermath of the U.S. Civil War, it was becoming increasingly dangerous to live on the plains. On November 29, 1864, Colonel John Chivington, without provocation, viciously attacked Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle's encampment at Sand Creek.
Causes of the Massacre
One of the main causes of the massacre was "rooted in the long conflict for control of the Great Plains of eastern Colorado," which had been gradually ceded to the United States through a series of treaties ("Nov 29, 1864: Native Americans are massacred at Sand Creek, Colorado"). With tensions steadily increasing between white settlers and Native Americans of the Great Plains, John Evans, then governor of the Colorado Territory, attempted to contain insubordinate Native Americans by inviting them to camp near military forts where they would receive "provisions and protections" ("Nov 29, 1864: Native Americans are massacred at Sand Creek, Colorado"). During this period, Colonel John Chivington was called upon by Governor Evans to "quell the mounting violence" caused by the tension between Native Americans and white settlers ("The Sand Creek Massacre").
The final treaty entered into by Governor Evans and Black Kettle took place three months before the massacre. "In August 1864, Evans met with Black Kettle and several other chiefs to forge a new peace, and all parties [were] left satisfied" ("Nov 29, 1864: Native Americans are massacred at Sand Creek, Colorado"). However, peace would be short-lived.
The Attack at Sand Creek
In November, Colonel Chivington, after hearing reports of an impending Native American threat "sweeping the territory," left Denver to "join his troops in Booneville," and on November 28 his "command arrived at Fort Lyon," a short distance from where Black Kettle and his followers were camped ("History & Culture"). "On the morning of November 29, [Chivington] led his troops, many of them drinking heavily, to Sand Creek and positioned them, along with four of their howitzers, around the Indian village" and attacked the settlement despite Black Kettle's signals that the camp was peaceful ("The Sand Creek Massacre").
As a result of the attack, nine of approximately 650–700 of Chivington's men were killed, while 148 of Black Kettle's followers—more than half of them women, children, and the elderly—lost their lives ("Nov 29, 1864: Native Americans are massacred at Sand Creek, Colorado"). The Third Colorado Cavalry, which had volunteered to accompany Chivington, later returned to kill any wounded Native Americans and proceeded to mutilate their bodies before setting fire to the village.
Works Cited
"History & Culture." Sand Creek Massacre. National Park Service. Web. 31 January 2013.
"Nov 29, 1864: Native Americans are massacred at Sand Creek, Colorado." This Day in History. The History Channel. Web. 31 January 2013.
"The Sand Creek Massacre." Last of the Independents. Web. 31 January 2013.
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