This paper provides a comprehensive overview of sickle cell anemia, a severe hereditary form of anemia characterized by rigid, crescent-shaped red blood cells that impair oxygen delivery throughout the body. The paper examines how the condition is diagnosed — including prenatal testing and newborn blood screening — and describes its range of symptoms, from chronic fatigue and painful episodes to vision damage and frequent infections. It also outlines current treatment approaches, including antibiotics, pain management, and blood transfusions, and surveys emerging research directions such as gene therapy, nitric oxide inhalation, and drugs that stimulate fetal hemoglobin production.
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The paper consistently integrates parenthetical citations to attribute specific claims to specific sources, demonstrating proper use of APA-style evidence integration in a scientific survey paper. Each factual claim — from cell lifespan to treatment risks — is anchored to a source, reinforcing credibility and academic integrity.
The paper is divided into five implicit sections: a definition of the disease, a discussion of diagnostic methods, a survey of symptoms, an explanation of existing treatments, and a review of experimental research. Each section is self-contained but builds on the previous one, creating a cohesive and complete overview appropriate for an introductory anatomy and physiology course.
Sickle cell anemia is a severe form of anemia in which the body does not have enough healthy red blood cells to carry the necessary oxygen to the rest of the body (Hwang & Shaparin, 2003). Red blood cells in individuals with sickle cell anemia are rigid and crescent-shaped, unlike normal red blood cells, which are smooth and round. Because of their abnormal shape, these cells become sticky and slow or block the flow of blood, reducing the amount of oxygen that can reach the rest of the body (Bjorklund, 2010).
A diagnosis of sickle cell anemia can occur as early as right after birth, or even before a baby is born (Peterson, 2009; Bloom, 1995). In prenatal cases, the fluid surrounding the amniotic sac is tested for the presence of hemoglobin S. This test is usually performed when one or both parents of the unborn child have sickle cell anemia themselves (Bloom, 1995).
In most cases, however, a simple blood test is conducted to check for the presence of hemoglobin S. This screening is performed routinely for all newborns in the United States and can also be done on children and adults (Bloom, 1995). If a person tests positive for hemoglobin S, further tests are administered in which blood cells are examined under a microscope to assess the severity of the disorder — including the quantity of affected cells and the degree of their deformation (Peterson, 2009).
Symptoms of sickle cell anemia can range from moderate to severe. The most common symptom is fatigue. Because sickle cells are fragile and live for only 10 to 20 days — compared to approximately 120 days for normal red blood cells — a shortage of functional cells occurs, leaving a person persistently tired (Bjorklund, 2010).
Sickle cell anemia can also cause episodes of intense pain in the joints, bones, or muscles that may last from a few hours to several weeks, depending on the individual (DCI, 2011). Swelling of the hands and feet is another symptom, one seen primarily in infants who have not yet been diagnosed (Bloom, 1995). People with sickle cell anemia also suffer from frequent infections because the disease damages the spleen, which plays a key role in fighting off pathogens. Additionally, because sickle-shaped cells can clog the blood vessels of the eyes, the condition can cause damage to the retina and impair vision (Peterson, 2009).
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