Sunni-Shia Division: Historical Roots and Modern Conflict

Introduction: Al Qaeda and Historical Context

The book "After the Prophet" opens with a story about Al Qaeda, the Sunni extremist group that has been the target of extensive geopolitical efforts from Western powers. In Western media, attention on Al Qaeda has focused primarily on their terrorist activities affecting the West. However, the stories about Al Qaeda's activities in Iraq are quite revealing and represent narratives that many people in the West do not hear.

In the seventh century, less than fifty years after Muhammad's death, his closest male descendants were murdered at Karbala. On March 4, 2004, Al Qaeda launched an attack known as the "Ashura Massacre" on the Shia at the same location (Hazleton 2009). This was a preview of the ensuing civil war that would explode after the fall of Saddam Hussein's reign in Iraq. To understand these events fully, it is necessary to place them in historical context. The roots of the conflict are nearly as old as Islam itself.

The Question of Succession

When Muhammad died in his chamber in Aisha, he left no sons to claim as his heir. If he had possessed a son or multiple sons, the oldest would most likely have been declared the new leader of the faith. Not only did Muhammad lack any sons, but he also failed to designate a clear heir to succeed him—or at least not one that was clearly understood by his followers. This absence of succession created the initial division among Sunni and Shia Muslims and represents a conflict that would persist throughout the centuries.

It is striking that Muhammad did not appoint a successor. According to Hazleton's account, appointing a successor would have posed a risk to Muhammad himself. The tensions between different groups and tribes were high during this period, and naming a successor could have endangered his life. Additionally, the designated successor might have attempted to accelerate the process by murdering the prophet. Whatever the reason for the lack of a clearly designated successor, this situation created the initial division among Sunni and Shia Muslims. It is even possible that Muhammad himself foresaw the discontent that would grow after his death.

Two main figures emerged as candidates to fill the role of successor: Muhammad's son-in-law Ali and his youngest wife, Aisha. Ali was known as a philosopher warrior and formidable opponent to Aisha. However, Aisha proved willing to use military force to challenge her rivals. She led a force that killed seventy-two of Ali's warriors, an act that manifested the divisions emerging within Islam itself. Aisha was Muhammad's youngest wife and a controversial figure who demanded to be recognized as a privileged woman.

Ali and Aisha: Competing Leaders

Aisha married Muhammad when she was extremely young. She was six years old when betrothed to him and nine years old when the marriage was consummated (Hazleton 2009). She was described as spirited and somewhat mischievous, qualities that Muhammad tolerated and even found endearing. Ali, by contrast, presented an entirely different character. He was the first man to accept Islam when he was thirteen years old and became known for his philosophical depth and martial prowess.

The majority of people believed that Ali was to be the successor, and evidence supports this view. Muhammad reportedly said of Ali, "I am from Ali and Ali is from me; he is the guardian of every believer after me" (Hazleton 2009). Notably, Ali missed the event at which the successor was to be formally designated because he was attending to Muhammad directly. He believed the Medinans would support his claim to succession, but this expectation proved unfounded. Instead, the Medinans believed that the role of successor should be placed in the hands of the many rather than concentrated in one individual—a form of democratization of religious authority and the chain of command.

The ideological differences between Ali's followers and those who supported a more collective form of succession would eventually crystallize into the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam. Ali's supporters believed in the concept of imamate—the idea that a divinely guided leader should inherit both spiritual and temporal authority. Those who opposed this concept preferred a system in which the community would select its leaders through consultation, a principle known as shura. These competing visions of Islamic governance reflected fundamentally different beliefs about how religious authority should be transmitted and exercised.